"Too many journalists are victims of violence and impunity, and more should be done in academia to prepare media students for the perils they are likely to face. I urge all faculty members at this conference to incorporate a course on safety for journalists in their curricula. It’s not a luxury; i
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t’s an urgent necessity. According to the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO), one journalist is killed every five days in the line of duty and the impunity of such acts is unabated." (Abstract)
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"Digital technologies are changing the way in which journalism is performed. Today, reports by citizen journalists (CJs) are extremely relevant when traditional journalists cannot access hostile and dangerous areas. According to the Committee to Protect Journalists, 90% of murdered reporters were lo
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cals (CPJ 2015). CJs are among the most affected journalists because they are locally based; therefore, their protection is essential. This article explores the legal instruments available to protect CJs during armed conflicts, and how distortions in the interpretation of norms can put them at risk. First, I present the legal arguments supporting the simultaneous application of International Humanitarian Law and International Human Rights Law, and the protection mechanisms available for the legal protection of CJs. Second, I highlight the problems that arise when CJs are identified as combatants (spies), rather than as civilians, and discuss the effects this has on the conflict." (Abstract)
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"I would like to begin by stating the obvious. Any way forward has to be based on a clear understanding of the possibilities for change in the environment and context of the press in India. While there is a lot to celebrate about the press in India, its institutional location within the market, its
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shapings by economic criteria and its cohabitations with business, politics and power have arguably compromised its ability to act as the Fourth Estate. So there is a sense in which the press has internal issues that it needs to deal with, although it also has to deal with external issues. When extra-journalistic pressures impinge on reporting, when power is levied to instil fear, encourage the nonreporting of scams and scandals and when those with the temerity to hold truth to power pay the ultimate price – death, the way forward simply has to reckon with and find solutions within a consideration of these home truths." (Abstract)
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"This study discusses how and in what ways activist citizen journalists in Turkey develop safety tactics against the repressive strategies of a neoliberal authoritarian government. By drawing on the theories of alternative new media and citizen journalism, we conducted interviews with activist citiz
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en journalists, proponents of citizen journalism initiatives, and representatives of two related organizations (TGS-Turkish Journalists’ Union and RSF-Reporters sans Frontières) to analyze their awareness and susceptibility concerning journalism safety. In short, we claim that neither our interviewees nor representatives of the involved organizations have high levels of awareness and sensitivity concerning safety. Still our interviewees are under the protection of a circle of safety thanks to networks of solidarity. We believe that to promote efforts to strengthen the relationship between media and democracy in the future, studies focusing on the safety of citizen journalists are crucial." (Abstract)
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"Journalists may be exposed to a number of risk factors for unwarranted interference. This is often compounded by a culture of impunity. The extent of unwarranted interference, the experience of fear associated with such interference, and the consequent possibility of self-censorship among journalis
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ts still ask for more investigation, since there are few systematic studies on this topic. This research explores the prevalence of unwarranted interference, perception of likelihood/fear of such interference and possible self censorship amongst a non-probability convenience sample of 940 journalists in the 47 Council of Europe member states. The study adopts a quantitative approach and utilizes an anonymous self-report questionnaire. The preliminary results presented here show how unwarranted interference is experienced to a significant degree among journalists in Council of Europe member states." (Abstract)
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"This chapter investigates safety challenges journalists face when reporting on democratization conflicts and their impact on journalistic work. It builds on a comparative case study within the EU-funded project “Media, Conflict and Democratisation” (MeCoDEM), which explores journalistic work pr
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actices, ethics, roles, and working conditions across a set of democratization conflicts through interviews with journalists from Egypt, Kenya, Serbia and South Africa. Findings show that journalists experience safety threats at personal and organizational levels ranging from insults, intimidation and phone tapping to physical attacks, legal proceedings, and imprisonment. Journalists describe limitations to the professionalization of the working environment, which is perceived as providing neither sufficient training on safety measures nor proper safety equipment. Also highlighted is the psychological safety of journalists experiencing trauma from witnessing violence. The reported safety challenges greatly affect journalistic practices, roles and ethics. Based on these findings, the chapter outlines possible measures to increase the safety of journalists reporting on democratization conflicts." (Abstract)
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"Objectives: To determine the emotional wellbeing of journalists who work in Iran. Methods: A website was established and journalists in newsrooms in Iran and the Diaspora were given information to access the site. Responses were received from 114 journalists (76 per per cent cent). The mean age was
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37.8 years and 57 per cent were male. Primary outcomes measures: Impact of Event Scale-revised for posttraumatic stress disorder, Beck Depression Inventory-II for depression. Results: Stressors included arrest (41.2 per cent), torture (19.3 per cent), assault (10.5 per cent), intimidation (51.4 per cent) and family threatened (43.1 per cent). Eighty-nine (78.1 per cent) journalists had stopped working on a story because of intimidation. Arrest, torture, intimidation and family threatened were associated with more PTSD symptoms and assault and intimidation with more depressive symptoms. Almost a third used barbiturates, with use correlating with symptoms of intrusion, avoidance, arousal and depression. Conclusions: Iranian journalists confront an extraordinary degree of danger. Self-medication of emotional distress with barbiturates gives additional cause for concern." (Abstract)
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"Journalists covering crises are at high risk of experiencing potentially traumatic events. This chapter presents a study with 375 journalists who covered the 2011 terror attack in Norway. The purpose was to investigate whether social support (SS) was related to psychological distress (posttraumatic
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stress symptoms, PTSS) or to personal posttraumatic growth (PTG). Results showed that 9 per cent (n = 33) were at risk for a posttraumatic stress disorder diagnosis. Journalists who perceived organized SS to be beneficial reported fewer symptoms. Receiving recognition from colleagues and managers promoted PTG. The study shows that newsrooms that implement openness to stress as a natural post-trauma reaction support resilience among their journalists." (Abstract)
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"This study investigates the challenges faced by local journalists caught between the global “war on terror” and its local consequences in Pakistan’s Federally Administered Tribal Areas (FATA). Threats and impunity are commonplace in this buffer zone bordering Pakistan and Afghanistan, compell
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ing scores of native journalists to flee with their immediate families to the relative peace of nearby Peshawar, where they continue to report on issues back home. In-depth interviews with local journalists reveal how threats and impunity work as structural constraints that affect reporting. Working under the logic of neoliberalism, media outlets extract what they can out of these reporters, but the risks are often considered journalists’ personal responsibility and add to their dependence on colleagues. This chapter offers valuable insight into the concerns of local journalists, and demonstrates how they resist the power holders in Pakistan and adapt to the complicated intersections of state, militant and foreign interests." (Abstract)
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"This chapter deals with whether war journalism in mainstream media is fit to take a fourth estate role in reporting the new wars, from the end of the Cold War in 1989 to the present war against the so-called Islamic State. In particular, it is a critical study of shortcomings when it comes to provi
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ding the public with relevant information about the legality and legitimacy of the ways in which the humanitarian operations under the UN declaration on the “Responsibility to Protect (R2P)” are pursued. However, in almost all respects, journalism is a national institution with competence deficits in the field of international law and humanitarian rights. The new and asymmetric wars – in which established distinctions, e.g., between civilians and soldiers, between embedded reporters and combatants as well as between war and peace are blurred – make such shortcomings a growing and severe democratic problem. A global journalism with higher professional standards in this field is important as one of several correctives in order to reverse the current threat spirals that jeopardize our collective security." (Abstract)
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"Journalists in many countries work in contexts of continuous risk, but few empirical studies identify how these conditions influence practice or measure the relative influence of different kinds of risk. This study asks a national sample of Mexican journalists to report use of several measures to a
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meliorate risk as violence and anti-press threat intensified over the last decade. It then identifies conditions that increased the likelihood of engaging in these practices. Findings reveal diverse tactics to remain safe and how those seeking to disseminate news through less-risky channels are less common than individual or outlet-based censorship. The study shows that physical insecurity overlaps with economic pressures to shut down important public-interest functions and that support for change agent roles, youth, ethnic minority status and working in smaller cities are important predictors of precautionary practices. The chapter ends with policy recommendations for international organizations, the Mexican government and press rights activists." (Abstract)
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"The article addresses in what way gender matters when dealing with war – and peace journalism. Issues discussed are to what extent the experiences of male and female reporters differ when they cover stories from the front line, especially regarding safety and working conditions. One important que
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stion is whether the increased presence of women in the frontline might be indicative of a change in war storylines. Are the stories framed differently dependent on the gender of the reporter? Will women’s perspectives allow for greater engagement with the lives of the victims of war rather than its technical and strategic aspects? The article also addresses how gender perspectives can contribute new ideas on peace journalism and even challenge our understanding of Johan Galtung’s theory." (Abstract)
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"The Boko Haram terrorism and violent extremism that ravaged North East Nigeria and Republics of Chad, Niger and Cameroons from 2009-2015 exposed weaknesses in the safety policy and protocols for local journalists in times and zones of tension in Nigeria. Boko Haram terrorists killed 30,000 people a
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nd destroyed property worth billions of dollars. In the midst of the violence and killings, journalists demonstrated their resilience to report, with severe consequences for their safety and professional integrity. Some were killed, many injured, and most were threatened by the terrorists and the authorities. Pressure mounted on journalists and media houses from the public, the terrorists and the security agencies. This chapter explains the dangers, risks and challenges encountered by Nigerian journalists and media and the safety options they adopted to maintain professional correctness in reporting terror and violence in hostile circumstances." (Abstract)
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"The Iraq War was a landmark in war reporting. The design and implementation of the embedded system enabled nearly 700 journalists to live and work alongside soldiers of the United States and British armies. Nearly 30 countries took part in the system, including Spain, one of the main supporters of
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the USA in its decision to start the war. This article discusses the advantages and drawbacks of the embedded system and the risks it entails for the security and protection of journalists. It offers a reflection on the challenges to be faced now that the embedded system has been consolidated as a way of covering a conflict… and has also proved to be the most economical way of doing so. This research focuses on the situation in Spain, where this debate has not been addressed by either academia or journalism. An in-depth interview method was chosen as the principal research tool." (Abstract)
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"Journalists around the world are being killed and threatened for doing their work. This is a serious hindrance to freedom of expression and the safe practice of journalism. UN and UNESCO have led the process to create the UN Plan of Action on the Safety of Journalists and the Issue of Impunity to i
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mprove the safety of journalists. As a part of the UN Plan, UNESCO also developed the Journalists’ Safety Indicators (JSI) assessment, which enables evaluation of the safety of journalists in a given country. Based on the first JSI assessments in Pakistan, Guatemala, Honduras, Nepal and Kenya in 2013-2015, but also following the recent developments in the practice of journalism, this article argues that in order to protect journalists and those practicing journalism properly, the concept of ‘journalist’ needs to be defined broadly. Furthermore, special attention needs to be paid to digital safety issues, women journalists, and wide-based cooperation on the safety of journalists." (Abstract)
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"The chapter takes as its starting point the notion that journalists’ safety is a precondition for free expression and free media. Based on interviews and discussions with experienced female war and conflict journalists from seven countries worldwide, the discussion evolves around questions linked
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to what particular challenges and opportunities women journalists face, and how their security can best be ensured when covering war and conflict zones. The deliberations are believed to have a direct bearing on debates about female journalists’ safety online and offline, the importance of the presence of female journalists covering wars and conflicts, and how their being there may serve as an indicator of freedom of expression, civil rights and media freedom in general." (Abstract)
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