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M&E Systems for Advocacy Work
INTRAC (2020), 6 pp.
"Monitoring and evaluation (M&E) systems for advocacy interventions usually include a number of common elements. The nature of advocacy work means M&E systems need to be designed and implemented differently than in conventional projects. M&E systems for advocacy work should be simple and time-effici
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Aggregation and Summarisation
INTRAC (2019), 7 pp.
"CSOs sometimes need to summarise or aggregate information across multiple interventions. This can be a difficult and challenging task, especially for large non-governmental organisations (NGOs) working in many different countries and/or sectors. Summarisation and aggregation can be achieved through
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Quasi-Experimental Approaches
INTRAC (2017), 6 pp.
"Experimental approaches work by comparing changes in a group that receives a development intervention with a group that does not. The difference is then attributed to the intervention. In a full experimental approach, units are randomly allocated to two groups – one that receives the intervention
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Impact Assessment
INTRAC (2017), 5 pp.
Theory of Change
INTRAC (2017), 4 pp.
"A Theory of Change approach to planning and evaluation is increasingly being considered essential practice within social development. Theories of Change can be developed in many ways. Common elements include an articulation of how change happens in a particular context, clarification of an organisa
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Types of Evaluation
INTRAC (2017), 4 pp.
"There are many different types of evaluation. Each type has its own set of processes and/or principles. Many factors influence decisions over what type of evaluation to use. Evaluations can be categorised according to their purpose, who conducts them, when they are carried out, the broad approach u
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Contribution Analysis
INTRAC (2017), 4 pp.
"Contribution analysis is a methodology used to identify the contribution a development intervention has made to a change or set of changes. The aim is to produce a credible, evidence-based narrative of contribution that a reasonable person would be likely to agree with, rather than to produce concl
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Process Tracing
INTRAC (2017), 5 pp.
"Process tracing is a qualitative analysis methodology. The main purpose of process tracing is to establish whether, and how, a potential cause or causes influenced a specified change or set of changes. This is done by applying formal tests to examine the strength of evidence linking potential cause
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Tracer Studies
INTRAC (2017), 3 pp.
"In a tracer study, data is collected and analysed repeatedly over time. For monitoring and evaluation purposes, tracer studies are often designed to track changes at individual level, following a development intervention. However, they might also focus on other units of analysis such as communities
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"To understand the changes brought about by a project or programme it is first necessary to understand what the original situation was. This is known as the baseline. Baselines can range from simple data collection exercises through to large, expensive surveys. They are an important part of many M&E
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Outcome Harvesting
INTRAC (2017), 5 pp.
"Outcome harvesting is a monitoring and evaluation methodology used to identify, describe, verify and analyse the changes brought about through a development intervention. It is designed to collect evidence of change, and then work backwards to assess contribution to that change. It was partly inspi
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Qualitative Comparative Analysis
INTRAC (2017), 5 pp.
"Qualitative Comparative Analysis (QCA) is a methodology that enables the analysis of multiple cases in complex situations. It can help explain why change happens in some cases but not others. QCA is designed for use with an intermediate number of cases, typically between 10 and 50. It can be used i
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Photography and Video
INTRAC (2017), 3 pp.
"Photography and video can be used as data collection methods. They can also be used to help analyse or communicate information. Photography and video can be used as monitoring and evaluation tools on their own, or in combination with other methodologies. They can both be applied as participatory te
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Secondary Data Sources
INTRAC (2017), 2 pp.
"Sometimes, information is used for planning, monitoring or evaluation that has previously been collected by other people or organisations for their own purposes. This is known as secondary data. There are many potential sources of secondary data. Secondary data can be used at any stage of a project
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Monitoring
INTRAC (2017), 6 pp.
"Monitoring is the systematic and continuous collection and analysis of information about the progress of a development intervention. Monitoring is done to ensure that all the people who need to know about an intervention are properly informed, and so that decisions can be taken in a timely manner.
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Randomised Control Trials
INTRAC (2017), 6 pp.
"In a Randomised Control Trial (RCT) different units are randomly assigned to separate groups. One group receives a development intervention and the other does not. Changes in the two groups over time are then compared to accurately measure the effect of the intervention. RCTs have been much debated
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Developmental Evaluation
INTRAC (2017), 3 pp.
"Developmental evaluation involves long-term relationships between evaluators and project or programme staff. Evaluation is ongoing, which means that feedback can be provided on a continuous basis. Development evaluation is particularly appropriate for projects or programmes working in complex or un
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Real-Time Evaluation
INTRAC (2017), 3 pp.
"A real-time evaluation (RTE) is designed to provide immediate (real time) feedback to those planning or implementing a project or programme, so that they can make improvements. This feedback is usually provided during the evaluation field work, rather than afterwards. RTEs are normally associated w
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Indicators
INTRAC (2017), 4 pp.
"Indicators are commonly used in social development to provide evidence of change. They form an important part of most monitoring and evaluation systems and approaches. There are many different types of indicator, including quantitative and qualitative indicators. They can be developed in different
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Focus Group Discussions
INTRAC (2017), 3 pp.
"Focus group discussions are facilitated discussions, held with a small group of people who have specialist knowledge or interest in a particular topic. They are used to find out the perceptions and attitudes of a defined group of people. Focus group discussions can be applied at any stage of the pr
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