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Focus Group Discussions
INTRAC (2017), 3 pp.
"Focus group discussions are facilitated discussions, held with a small group of people who have specialist knowledge or interest in a particular topic. They are used to find out the perceptions and attitudes of a defined group of people. Focus group discussions can be applied at any stage of the pr
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Interviews
INTRAC (2017), 4 pp.
"Interviews are routinely carried out when projects and programmes are planned, monitored or evaluated. Interviews may be carried out face-to-face or through remote media. They may be carried out with individuals or groups. They may be unstructured, semi-structured or structured. And they may be inf
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Tracer Studies
INTRAC (2017), 3 pp.
"In a tracer study, data is collected and analysed repeatedly over time. For monitoring and evaluation purposes, tracer studies are often designed to track changes at individual level, following a development intervention. However, they might also focus on other units of analysis such as communities
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Outcome Harvesting
INTRAC (2017), 5 pp.
"Outcome harvesting is a monitoring and evaluation methodology used to identify, describe, verify and analyse the changes brought about through a development intervention. It is designed to collect evidence of change, and then work backwards to assess contribution to that change. It was partly inspi
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Process Tracing
INTRAC (2017), 5 pp.
"Process tracing is a qualitative analysis methodology. The main purpose of process tracing is to establish whether, and how, a potential cause or causes influenced a specified change or set of changes. This is done by applying formal tests to examine the strength of evidence linking potential cause
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Contribution Analysis
INTRAC (2017), 4 pp.
"Contribution analysis is a methodology used to identify the contribution a development intervention has made to a change or set of changes. The aim is to produce a credible, evidence-based narrative of contribution that a reasonable person would be likely to agree with, rather than to produce concl
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"Sampling is a process that enables information to be collected from a small number of individuals or organisations within a project or programme, and then used to draw conclusions about a wider population. There are many different sampling methods. Quantitative analysis tends to require large, rand
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Quasi-Experimental Approaches
INTRAC (2017), 6 pp.
"Experimental approaches work by comparing changes in a group that receives a development intervention with a group that does not. The difference is then attributed to the intervention. In a full experimental approach, units are randomly allocated to two groups – one that receives the intervention
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Randomised Control Trials
INTRAC (2017), 6 pp.
"In a Randomised Control Trial (RCT) different units are randomly assigned to separate groups. One group receives a development intervention and the other does not. Changes in the two groups over time are then compared to accurately measure the effect of the intervention. RCTs have been much debated
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Surveys and Questionnaires
INTRAC (2017), 5 pp.
"Surveys and questionnaires are designed to collect and record information from multiple people, groups or organisations in a consistent way. Surveys and questionnaires can be used on their own as data collection tools. They are also an essential part of some more complex data collection and analysi
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Secondary Data Sources
INTRAC (2017), 2 pp.
"Sometimes, information is used for planning, monitoring or evaluation that has previously been collected by other people or organisations for their own purposes. This is known as secondary data. There are many potential sources of secondary data. Secondary data can be used at any stage of a project
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Impact Grids
INTRAC (2017), 3 pp.
"An impact grid is a tool that helps stakeholders involved in a development intervention to analyse multiple changes by mapping those changes onto a grid. A typical grid charts the extent of change alongside the degree of contribution of the intervention. Impact grids can be used for many different
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Qualitative Comparative Analysis
INTRAC (2017), 5 pp.
"Qualitative Comparative Analysis (QCA) is a methodology that enables the analysis of multiple cases in complex situations. It can help explain why change happens in some cases but not others. QCA is designed for use with an intermediate number of cases, typically between 10 and 50. It can be used i
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Developing M&E Systems for Complex Organisations: A Methodology
Oxford: INTRAC (2009), 36 pp.
"The paper is divided into two parts: Part One describes a methodology for designing an M&E system. This covers a number of stages from defining the scope and purpose of the system to its eventual roll out. However, it does not cover the implementation of the M&E system. Part Two addresses many of t
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