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War Reporters Under Threat: The United States and Media Freedom

Chris Paterson

Pluto Press (2014), x, 222 pp.

"War Reporters Under Threat describes the threat of violence facing war reporters from the United States government and some of its closest allies. Chris Paterson argues that what should have been the lesson for the press following the invasion of Iraq - that they will be treated instrumentally by t ... more

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Journalists as a Protected Category: A New Status for the Media in International Humanitarian Law

Elizabeth Levin

UCLA Journal of International Law and Foreign Affairs, volume 17 (2013), pp. 215-250

"The nature of modern warfare has vastly changed the role of journalists in conflict and, therefore, the reliability of the protections afforded to them. Countries such as the United States have interpreted international humanitarian law in such a way that leaves journalists vulnerable to targeting ... more

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Violence Against Journalists and Media Workers: Inter-American Standards and National Practices on Prevention, Protection and Prosecution of Perpetrators

Inter-American Commission on Human Rights, Office of the Special Rapporteur for Freedom of Expression (2013), viii, 180 pp.

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The principles which can be drawn from the case-law of the European Court of Human Rights relating to the protection and safety of journalists and journalism

Philip Leach

Belgrade: Council of Europe Conference of Ministers Responsible for Media and Information Society Freedom of Expression and Democracy in the Digital Age (2013), 27 pp.

"I have been asked by the Council of Europe Steering Committee on Media and Information Society (CDMSI) for a paper setting out the principles that can be drawn from the case-law of the European Court of Human Rights (“the Court”) relating to the protection and safety of journalists and journali ... more

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Legal avenues for ending impunity for the death of journalists in conflict zones: Current and proposed international agreements

Kayt Davies, Emily Crawford

International Journal of Communication, volume 7 (2013), pp. 2157-2177

"Every bullet that kills a journalist in a warzone adds passion and urgency to calls for “something” to be done to better protect frontline media workers. International humanitarian law (the body of law that includes the Geneva Conventions) offers some avenues for legal redress, but problems wit ... more

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The Protection of Journalists in Armed Conflicts: How Can They Be Better Safeguarded?

Isabell Düsterhöft

International and European Law, volume 29, issue 76 (2013), pp. 4-22

"The years 2011 and 2012 were among the most deadly for journalists reporting from conflict situations worldwide. The numbers of assaults, arrests and attacks have been on a constant rise and portray a dramatic image of the journalistic profession. In light of the increasing threats in armed conflic ... more

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Protecting the Right to Life of Journalists: The Need for a Higher Level of Engagement

Christof Heyns, Sharath Srinivasan

Human Rights Quarterly, volume 35, issue 2 (2013), pp. 304-332

"Journalists play a central role in fostering a society based on the open discussion of facts and the pursuit of the truth, as opposed to one based on rumor, prejudice, and the naked exercise of power. As a result, journalists are often literally in the line of fire and deserve special protection. T ... more

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Institutional Design and Effectiveness of the Agencies Charged with Protecting Journalists and Investigating Crimes Against the Press: Mexico, Colombia and Guatemala

Natalie Torres

Buenos Aires: Universidad de Palermo, Facultad de Derecho, Centro de Estudios en Libertad de Expresión y Acceso a la Información (CELE) (2012), 111 pp.

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Threats to the Right to Life of Journalists

Sarah Elliott, Mona Elbahtimy, Sharath Srinivasan

Cambridge: University of Cambridge, Centre of Governance and Human Rights (CGHR) (2012), 23 pp.

"Journalists as a category of individuals are subjected to special risks of physical violence that amount to serious risks to their right to life. The current scale of threats to the lives and killings of journalists is a serious matter of concern. It shows an erosion of the rule of law and democrat ... more

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Dangerous Work: Violence Against Mexico’s Journalists and Lessons from Colombia

Douglas Farah

Washington, DC: Center for International Media Assistance (CIMA) (2012), 32 pp.

"Turning the tide on the killing of journalists involves several steps, but primarily it is a matter of having the political will to acknowledge the issue as important and ending the impunity for those responsible for the violence. These steps include: following through on making attacks on the medi ... more

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The Media and International Humanitarian Law: Legal Protections for Journalists

Sophie Kagan, Helen Durham

Pacific Journalism Review, volume 16, issue 1 (2010), pp. 96-112

"Journalists and other media personnel perform a crucial role in armed conflicts. In the absence of functioning civil society, which, in peacetime can survey the behaviour of governments and other parties, and report on breaches of law, journalists are often the only parties on the ground able to do ... more

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Journalists: Shielded from the dangers of war in their pursuit of the truth?

Shannon Bosch

South African Yearbook of International Law, volume 34, issue 1 (2009), pp. 70-100

"This piece seeks to unpack these questions by exploring the current protection afforded journalists under both general international law and IHL (Part I); the IHL status of journalists (both those embedded in the military and those reporting as freelance / independent journalists) (Part II); target ... more

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Don't shoot the messenger: Prospects for protecting journalists in conflict situations

M. Joanne Lisosky, Jennifer Henrichsen

Media, War & Conflict, volume 2, issue 2 (2009), pp. 129-148

"One of the greatest threats to freedom of expression around the world is the violence committed against journalists practicing their profession in conflict situations. During the last 20 years, an alarming number of journalists have been targeted or killed when reporting about war. This situation h ... more

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Twenty-First Century Embedded Journalists: Lawful Targets?

W. Douglas Moore

Army Lawyer, issue July (2009), 32 pp.

"In light of the U.S. functionality test to Article 51(3), the role and use of today’s embedded journalist in international armed conflicts poses a direct threat to their civilian protections under Article 79 of Protocol I. Despite the fact that embedded journalism has helped to facilitate better ... more

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The protection of journalists in armed conflicts

Robin Geiss

German Yearbook of International Law, volume 51 (2008), pp. 289-320

"The first casualty of war is truth. Disinformation and tactical ruses of war have constituted essential components of warfare throughout history. Over time, influencing public opinion - and consequentially securing the prime position to exert such influence - has become ever more significant. In mo ... more

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The international protection of journalists in armed conflict and other violent situations

Ben Saul

Australian Journal of Human Rights, volume 14, issue 1 (2008), pp. 99-140

"Media reporting of armed conflict and other situations of heightened violence has become increasingly perilous, with large numbers of journalists and other media personnel killed or deliberately targeted because of their professional work, including by government forces and non-government actors. T ... more

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Guidelines of the Committee of Ministers of the Council of Europe on Protecting Freedom of Expression and Information in Times of Crisis

Strasbourg: Council of Europe (2007), 4 pp.

"[...] 1. As used in these guidelines, the term “crisis” includes, but is not limited to, wars, terrorist attacks, natural and man-made disasters, i.e. situations in which freedom of expression and information is threatened (for example, by limiting it for security reasons); the term “media pr ... more

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Journalists in War Zones: Crossing from the Newsroom into the Arena

C. A. Waschefort

De Jure, volume 40 (2007), pp. 379-384

"The very real danger in which conflict-journalists find themselves is well illustrated by the fact that during the recent conflict in Iraq proportionally more journalists were killed than members of the coalition forces (BalguyGallois March 2004 International Review of the Red Cross 37). The fact t ... more

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The protection of journalists and news media personnel in armed conflict

Alexandre Balguy-Gallois

International Review of the Red Cross, volume 86, issue 853 (2004), pp. 37-67

"The recent war in Iraq is a perfect illustration of the growing risks faced by journalists working in conflict zones. It is therefore important to call renewed attention to the fact that attacks against journalists and media equipment are illegal under international humanitarian law, which protects ... more

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Sólo para periodistas: Comunicadores sociales

Unión de Trabajadores de Prensa de Buenos Aires (utpba) (2004), 114 pp.