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Weaponising the law: Threats to media freedom in Kenya

Lawrence Mute, Andrew Songa

Thomson Reuters Foundation (2026), 55 pp.

"This report presents a comprehensive analysis of the legal threats to media freedom in Kenya today. For the purposes of this report, weaponisation of the law is defined as the deliberate use or misuse of legal provisions and processes to intimidate, silence, or economically weaken media actors. Des ... pite robust constitutional safeguards for freedom of expression and of the media, as well as a vibrant media sector, Kenya continues to experience setbacks in the realisation of these rights, alongside improvements in some areas. This report follows the global Weaponizing the Law: Attacks on Media Freedom report, published in 2023, by providing a country-specific analysis of the Kenyan context. Informed by an initial desktop review of relevant laws, regulations and court decisions, the research included an industry survey and focus group discussions, which identified six primary categories of legal threats: the abuse of court processes; regressive and disabling legislation; weak implementation of media laws; technology-facilitated harms; impunity and safety of journalists; the sustainability of the media industry. This report presents these threats thematically rather than in order of severity, reflecting the fact that they do not occur in isolation, but intersect with broader patterns of political influence, intimidation, and pressure from certain private actors. Together, they undermine independent journalism and weaken the long-term sustainability of the media sector. Our survey found that 42% of media actors in Kenya have faced legal threats in response to their work, including litigation, arrest, and the shutting down of online platforms. A summary of these key threats is outlined below. Moreover, 65% of media professionals who responded to our survey highlighted legal protections as their top support need to ensure the sustainability of journalism in Kenya. Throughout the research and across the six categories of threats documented in this report, three cross-cutting themes have emerged: 1. Legal tools are increasingly used to punish, deter, or delegitimise critical journalism. 2. Institutional weaknesses, such as inconsistent implementation and limited enforcement, undermine the effectiveness of legal protections already on the books. 3. Rapid technological change is outpacing the law, leaving journalists exposed to new risks ranging from AI-driven market disruptions to technology-facilitated gender-based violence. These issues are not unique to the Kenyan context; the solutions will lie in collaborative action that harnesses the expertise of a breadth of stakeholders across the media freedom ecosystem within the country and region." (Executive summary) more

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Digital Media Shadowing Democracy: Technology, Communication, and Power

Auksė Balčytienė, Péter Bajomi-Lázár, Helena Sousa (eds.)

Gothenburg: Nordicom, University of Gothenburg (2026), 282 pp.

"The book’s message is brief: Liberal democracies are at risk. Democratic decay has numerous causes, but technological innovations and profit-driven dynamics are shaping societal relations in ways that intensify disagreements and polarisation, undermining informed citizenship. The growing number o ... more

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Free Expression Seen as Important Globally, but Not Everyone Thinks Their Country Has Press, Speech and Internet Freedoms: Made-up news and information seen as pervasive across the globe
Deep Insights

Jacob Poushter, Maria Smerkovich, Moira Fagan, Andrew Prozorovsky

Pew Research Center (2025), 71 pp.

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Address of the Holy Father Leo XIV to Representatives of the Media

Leo XIV (Pope)

Vatican City: Holy See, May 12 (2025)

"[...] Let me, therefore, reiterate today the Church’s solidarity with journalists who are imprisoned for seeking to report the truth, and with these words I also ask for the release of these imprisoned journalists. The Church recognises in these witnesses – I am thinking of those who report on ... more

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Declaration on the necessity of culture and media as a safeguard for our European democracies

Council of the European Union (2025), 4 pp.

"This declaration serves as a reminder that culture, cultural heritage and media policies must be a vital part of the European collaboration and European security in order to protect our democracies. We commit to upholding cultural diversity, artistic freedom and supporting media pluralism and freed ... more

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Ugandans support free media that holds government accountable

Jane Mercy Muthoni Kamunyi

Afrobarometer (2025), 10 pp.

"Findings from the Afrobarometer Round 9 survey (2022) show that a strong majority of Ugandans supported media freedom and believed the media should play a watchdog role by investigating and reporting on government mistakes and corruption. Most citizens said the public should have access to governme ... more

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Trotz alledem – Kritischer Journalismus

iz3w, issue 406 (2025), pp. D1- D23

"Was wäre eine Welt ohne kritische und linke Medien? Sie treten Staat und Kapital auf die Füße und schauen auf unterbelichtete Themen – auch wenn es weh tut. Doch die Zeitungs- und Zeitschriftenkrise, der digitale Wandel sowie Einschränkungen der Pressefreiheit stellen den kritischen Journali ... more

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State of the Media: Nauru

ABC International Development; University of Adelaide; Pacific Media Assistance Scheme (PACMAS) (2025), 33 pp.

"The findings in this report highlight the ongoing dominance of state-owned media platforms in Nauru, all run by the Nauru Media Bureau (NMB). With no private media currently operating, media freedom in the country is limited. The report also illustrated the rising popularity of foreign media and so ... more

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Vulnerable Media, Struggling Democracy: A Critical Appraisal of Uganda’s Media Legal Framework

African Centre for Media Excellence (ACME) (2025), 38 pp.

"This report presents an in-depth examination of Uganda’s media legal and regulatory framework, with a particular focus on its implications for press freedom, democratic engagement, and the overarching vitality of the media sector. The findings reveal a disconcerting trend: although constitutional ... more

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Pakistani Journalism Under Pressure In A Tightly Restricted Political Environment, Safety Threats and Internet Shutdowns: Press Freedom and Media Safety in Pakistan in 2024

Karachi: Pakistan Press Foundation (PPF) (2025), 24 pp.

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Address of Pope Leo XIV to Participants in the MINDS International Association Conference

Leo XIV (Pope)

Vatican City: Holy See, October 9 (2025)

"[...] The world needs free, rigorous and objective information. In this context, it is worth remembering Hannah Arendt’s warning that “the ideal subject of totalitarian rule is not the convinced Nazi or the convinced Communist, but people for whom the distinction between fact and fiction and th ... more

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El periodismo nicaragüense está vivo

Julio López (ed.)

Bogotá: Friedrich-Ebert-Stiftung (FES), FES Comunicación (2025), 73 pp.

"En este libro, 12 periodistas nicaragüenses exiliados relatan sus historias y su pasión por el periodismo. A pesar del dolor, el desarraigo y la separación familiar continúan su labor informativa, denuncian las agresiones contra la prensa y los abusos a los derechos humanos. Además, presenta u ... more

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Democratic Decline, Economic and Political Pressures, Urgency for Reforms. The Future of the Media in Turkey – Facts and Trends

Sinem Aydinli

Sarajevo; Istanbul; Ljubljana: Mediacentar; Bianet; Peace Institute; South East European Network for Professionalization of Media (SEENPM) (2025), 39 pp.

"The state of the media and democracy in Turkey faces critical challenges that hinder freedom of expression and pluralism, due to restrictive legal frameworks, economic instability, and cross-ownership in the media sector. Although digitalization has transformed news consumption, the government’s ... more

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Even before wartime restrictions, Sudan media faced weak public backing for press freedom

Caroline Nakayiza, Doreen Okisai

Afrobarometer (2025), 12 pp.

"This dispatch looks at Sudanese citizens’ attitudes regarding media freedom as of late 2022, i.e. during the period between the military coup and the beginning of the civil war. Afrobarometer survey findings show that Sudanese were divided both in their support for media freedom and in their asse ... more

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Eroding Media Freedoms, Eroding Democracy. The Future of the Media in Bosnia and Herzegovina – Facts and Trends

Anida Sokol

Sarajevo; Ljubljana: Mediacentar; Peace Institute; South East European Network for Professionalization of Media (SEENPM) (2025), 37 pp.

"Significant changes in journalism and the media have been unfolding in Bosnia and Herzegovina (BiH), yet these shifts have not been accompanied by adequate policies or interventions. This report outlines key trends affecting journalism, media usage, and democracy, highlighting issues crucial for th ... e future of the profession: • The number of journalism students has significantly decreased over the past decade, a trend which could lead to a shortage of qualified professionals in the long run. • Although unemployment among journalists has declined in recent years, 2023 saw a considerable number of journalists lose their jobs due to the non-renewal of fixed-term contracts or being deemed surplus labour. Unionizing remains unpopular among journalists in the country and without protection mechanisms, journalism in BiH risks becoming even more unstable. • Reports of attacks and violations of journalists’ rights have increased in recent years, reflecting a decline in BiH’s rankings on media freedom indexes. • Despite rapid technological advancements, including the emergence of generative artificial intelligence, the media lack guidelines for their use or studies addressing potential abuses in the media. This absence of regulation and oversight increases the risk of misuse and potential harm. • While regulatory and self-regulatory mechanisms exist, they fail to tackle a core issue in the media: biased reporting, which risks becoming normalized in journalistic practices. • The digital era has brought a proliferation of media outlets, including new television channels. The growth of media outlets does not necessarily improve media pluralism, but could lead to smaller newsrooms, increased workloads of journalists and less quality journalistic content. • Print media has been on the decline, and the country’s major political weekly magazines have ceased publication. Without strategic interventions, print media operations will be difficult to sustain in the future. • Media ownership transparency remains unregulated further aggravating media capture. Media outlets are predominantly owned by companies or individuals with business interests beyond the media sector. • The advertising market has grown slightly in recent years, likely influenced by inflation. However, it remains insufficient to support the growing number of media outlets, posing challenges to financial sustainability. • Television still dominates advertising revenue, but online media’s share is steadily increasing, signalling that digital marketing will become increasingly dominant in the coming years. • Public budgets and donor support remain important for sustaining media operations. Without proper regulation, financing from public budgets, however, bring risks to media independence. • Media primarily serve the interests of the three major ethnic groups, excluding minorities from decision-making roles and positions in mainstream outlets, limiting media pluralism." (Executive summary) more

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Precarity and Political Pressure: Addressing Challenges Underming Media Freedom in Croatia

Article 19 Europe (2025), 20 pp.

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Independent Evaluation of the Media Freedom Coalition

Aida Al Kaisy, Daniel Skillings, Ivana Jiménez Barrios

Paris: Aleph Strategies; Media Freedom Coalition (2025), 62 pp.

"The evaluation found that the MFC has made notable contributions to media freedom and journalist safety over the past five years. It has played a role in encouraging some Member States to strengthen their media freedom policies and legislation. The MFC has also influenced state actors through diplo ... matic and advocacy efforts, maintaining high-level political attention on media freedom. Direct interventions, legal guidance, and engagement with embassy networks have contributed to journalist protection efforts at the local level. Furthermore, the MFC has strengthened multi-stakeholder coordination, bringing together governments, civil society, and legal experts. However, the evaluation also identified several areas for improvement. While the MFC provides a platform for dialogue and cooperation, its engagement with members on domestic media freedom policies is voluntary and lacks a structured approach for supporting and tracking commitments. Joint advocacy statements have a greater impact locally than internationally and are often perceived as lacking boldness and clear outcomes. While the MFC has addressed high-profile cases, its focus has sometimes overshadowed broader, systemic media freedom challenges. Engagement with Rights-Holders and organisations working on the ground has been limited, impacting the relevance and sustainability of its strategies. Coordination and collaboration within the MFC are foundational, particularly through diplomatic networks and the development of emergency visa schemes. However, decision-making is often reactive, affecting stakeholder trust. The MFC’s membership is perceived as predominantly Northern-led, and there is potential to leverage its diverse membership more effectively. Knowledge management and information-sharing need strengthening to ensure a deeper understanding of media freedom issues among Member States. The high-level legal expertise of the HLP is underutilised. Clarity around decision-making processes among Member States varies, influencing trust-based collaboration. While engagement at the local level through embassies is effective, it requires more structured guidance and support. Coordination between Member States, the CN, and the HLP remains limited in some areas. In terms of sustainability, the current governance model, particularly the annual rotation of Executive Group co-chairs, can present challenges for knowledge retention and continuity. Funding modalities are complex, leading to perceptions of uneven distribution and impacting trust and coordination. While the MFC has developed working relationships with similar coalitions, more formalised collaboration could maximise resource efficiency. The limited engagement with Rights-Holders influences the visibility and perceived effectiveness of the MFC’s work." (Key findings and conclusions, pages 2-3) more

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Mapping Media Freedom: Monitoring Report 2024

Media Freedom Rapid Response (MFRR); European Centre for Press and Media Freedom (ECPMF) (2025), 51 pp.

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Media Bias, Legislative Challenges, and the Fight for Freedom. The Future of the Media in Serbia – Facts and Trends

Valentina Sigeti, Teodora Koledin

Sarajevo; Novi Sad; Ljubljana: Mediacentar; Novi Sad School of Journalism; Peace Institute; South East European Network for Professionalization of Media (SEENPM) (2025), 50 pp.

"Alongside the rise of new technologies and the evolving global conditions in the media industry, journalism and media in Serbia will face numerous challenges, particularly in the areas of basic media freedom and journalist protection, based on the findings of this research: • There is no reliable ... data on the number of journalists in Serbia, or how many of them are women or members of marginalized groups. • Media ownership in Serbia is highly concentrated, particularly in the television broadcasting sector, which affects media reporting. Channels with national frequencies often align their narratives with the government’s or ruling party’s agenda. • The state and ruling party demonstrate tendencies to control the media. This is evident in the newly updated law that allows business companies engaged in electronic communications, such as the state-owned Telekom, to own media outlets. Additionally, findings indicate that some media owners at the local level are connected to the ruling party. • Media financing is often misused to encourage biased reporting. Public calls for funding are corrupted by GONGO media organizations, which prioritize funding pro-government outlets; state advertising is not regulated by law, and the media community was left out of the discussion on new advertising laws; despite receiving the majority of its budget from citizens’ subscriptions, the national public broadcaster RTS is still perceived as one of the most progovernment outlets in the country; foreign donors, including the EU, US and UK, provide significant financial support for media projects in Serbia, but there is no transparent data on the total amount of money donated. • National minorities are represented through media outlets funded by National Councils of National Minorities. However, journalists from some of these media outlets work under political pressures and engage in self-censorship. National minorities living in the northern province of Serbia, Vojvodina, are also served by the provincial public broadcaster RTV. RTS does not provide content in the languages of the Bosnian, Vlach and Bulgarian communities in Serbia’s eastern and western regions. Romani and Albanian communities are represented on RTS, but the amount of content is minimal. • Television is the most commonly used source of news and information, with citizens watching up to eight hours of television daily. The most-watched TV news programmes are central-informative political shows on channels with national frequencies, which are widely considered pro-government. • Only 30% of Serbian citizens trust the media. Social media is the least trusted media type, while television is the most trusted." (Executive summary) more

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Batswana support press freedom and media’s watchdog role

Mogopodi Lekorwe, Wilford Molefe, Kefentse P. Malele

Afrobarometer (2025), 12 pp.

"Three-fourths (74%) of Batswana say they are gsomewhat freeh or gcompletely freeh to say what they think, although 24% disagree. The share who feel free to speak their minds is up by 6 percentage points since 2022 (68%) but remains below the historic high of 93% in 2008. Botswana ranks abov ... more

Free Expression Seen as Important Globally, but Not Everyone Thinks Their Country Has Press, Speech and Internet Freedoms: Made-up news and information seen as pervasive across the globe Deep Insights

Free Expression Seen as Important Globally, but Not Everyone Thinks Their Country Has Press, Speech and Internet Freedoms: Made-up news and information seen as pervasive across the globe
Deep Insights