"This volume presents key international research on journalism and safety with a focus on conceptual, global, and transnational approaches, as well as conflict, challenges, and consequences for democracy. It offers an overview of the latest research and ongoing developments in the field of journalis
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m and safety and speaks to the ways in which digital developments have worsened the risks surrounding journalists, with online harassments, security breaches, surveillance and so forth challenging their safety like never before. The first of two volumes, this book comprises a handpicked collection of cutting-edge research articles authored by distinguished international scholars. The chapters in the book were originally published in Digital Journalism, Journalism Studies, and Journalism Practice during the years 2019-2023, and have thus been through rigorous double-blind peer-review. The chapters draw on data from diverse geographical locations such as U.S., Syria, Yemen, Libya, Iraq, Palestine, Latin America, Pakistan, Philippines, Afghanistan, Venezuela, Ethiopia, and Slovakia. The first section of the book focuses on research that either has made significant conceptual advancements on journalism and safety, and/or has contributed with global or transnational approaches, and the second section focuses on challenges in conflict coverage and the impact it has on democracies." (Abstract)
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"Journalism is often referred to as one of the most important knowledge-producing institutions in society, yet also one facing numerous challenges, among which the safety of journalists critical. Public visibility as a journalist, having thousands of followers on social media, was until recently asp
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ired by many in the field. However, this may well be disadvantageous to journalists scrutinizing sensitive topics, encountering actors that do their best to outright undermine and delegitimize journalism, also in Western democracies. This article begins by introducing and discussing research and ongoing developments relating to journalism and safety. It then turns to the sociotechnical and three-dimensional concept we call Newsafety, encompassing infrastructures, practices and consequences. Moreover, the article introduces and highlight key contributions from the special issue, which features six original articles and two invited commentaries. In closing, we call for interdisciplinary research focusing especially on psychological- and digital issues related to the UNESCO research agenda on the safety of journalists." (Abstract)
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"This book explores the relationship between the safety of journalists and self-censorship practices around the world, including local case studies and regional and international perspectives. Bringing together scholars and practitioners from around the globe, Journalist Safety and Self-Censorship p
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rovides new and updated insights into patterns of self-censorship and free speech, focusing on a variety of factors that affect these issues, including surveillance, legislation, threats, violent conflict, gender-related stereotypes, digitisation and social media. The contributions examine topics such as trauma, risk and self-censorship among journalists in different regions of the world, including Central America, Estonia, Turkey, Uganda and Pakistan. The book also provides conceptual clarity to the notion of journalist self-censorship, and explores the question of how self-censorship may be studied empirically." (Publisher description)
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"The chapters document a multitude of factors pushing journalists to self-censor out of fear of repercussions such as government pressures, police brutality, social violence, corruption, misogyny and gendered stereotyping, surveillance, economic factors and more. The range of causes of self-censorsh
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ip are grounded in the actions (and perceived future actions) of a variety of actors, including state and government officials, commercial enterprises, civil society groups and citizens in general. Self-censorship due to perceived risk hinders (critical) reporting on a range on topics of societal importance, including corruption, organized crime, politics, religion, sex, homosexuality, minority groups, and human rights violations in general. Risk associated with publishing also entails that journalists sometimes avoid seeking out information out of fear of knowing. Possible measures that can be taken by journalists and newsrooms in order to minimize risks and decrease self-censorship among journalists include safety training, organizational and psychological support, moderation of online comments sections, gender policies in newsrooms, and collective efforts to share information and “speak out” against prosecution, harassment and other safety risks. NGOs and other civil society initiatives supporting journalism can help strengthen laws protecting journalists online and offline, improve netiquette, gender equality and push governments to respect freedom of speech and the media." (Abstract)
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"Drawing on Reese’s hierarchy of influences model, this study investigates the extent to which safety risks and digital surveillance result in journalists’ self-censorship in Pakistan. This study also explores the key areas of journalists’ self-censorship in the country and how it affects thei
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r right to freedom of expression. To achieve these objectives, the study uses the quantitative method of survey and the qualitative method of in-depth interviews. The study uses relative frequency statistics and thematic analysis to analyse the survey and interview data respectively. This study reveals that journalists’ self-censorship is related to diverse safety risks (especially physical, financial, legal, topic-specific and public risks) and to digital surveillance by the government, military and its intelligence agencies. This study also highlights that most of the Pakistani journalists are not trained for digitally safe and encrypted communication, which indicates a pressing need for journalists’ education in order to avoid any foreseeable digital and other types of risks." (Abstract)
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"The aim of the study is to investigate Estonian female journalists’ experiences with harassment resulting in self-censorship. We carried out three studies: one in 2015, a second in 2016 and a third one in 2018. The data were gathered by in-depth interviews (2015 and 2018), journalists’ diaries
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(2015) and a questionnaire (2016). The sample consisted of eight sports journalists (2015), 12 female journalists from different fields (2018) and 181 respondents (115 female, 66 male, 2016). The results of the three studies revealed that comments made towards female journalists aimed at degrading their authority (emphasizing age, experience or gender); and argued that female journalists should work elsewhere or find a more “female” profession. Female journalists did not read comments on their stories not only because of the lack of time, but to avoid harassment and insults. Secondly, to avoid harassment from sources or audiences, journalists showed signs of self-censorship as they avoided writing on topics that bring along more attention, such as refugees, minority groups, and corruption cases, or avoided writing on topics that include sources with whom they have had negative experiences." (Abstract)
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"Online harassment of women journalists imposes self-censorship and threatens women’s participation in online journalism. This is of grave concern for the development of freedom of speech and plurality in the media (Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe [OSCE], 2019). Part of this i
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ssue’s complexity was summarized by the International Federation of Journalists (IFJ) Deputy General Secretary, Jeremy Dear: “In some parts of the world, it’s a result of what women write and in others it’s because of the mere fact that they write” (IFEX, 2019). Perhaps more often, these two motivational factors are working together creating a significantly more threatening online environment for female journalists than for their male colleagues. When such discontent appears within the ungoverned spheres of the Internet, the dimension of it seems to grow exponentially. The result is a climate of fear, silence and self-censorship – and potentially women’s absence in the future online public sphere. This chapter presents an explorative theoretical approach to understanding the processes at play when women journalists are threatened and harassed online. Looking primarily to research within gender- and feminist- theory, computer communication and cyber psychology studies and literature on antipress violence, I argue that female journalists’ predisposition to online harassment is largely connected to online governance (or lack thereof), an enduring patriarchy and a rise in threats against journalists." (Abstract)
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"In Uganda, local non-governmental organizations (NGOs) such as Human Rights Network for Journalists-Uganda and Uganda Media Women’s Association have become instrumental in the fight for media freedom and combating impunity for crimes committed against journalists. Despite this effort, little rese
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arch has been dedicated to the contribution of such organizations in promoting safety and reducing incidents of self-censorship among journalists. This study examines the role of NGOs in reducing journalistic self-censorship and promoting safety of journalists. The discussion in this chapter is based on qualitative interviews with four members of two NGOs working in the area of media freedom and ten purposively selected journalists who have previously been defended or protected by NGOs that promote media freedom. Findings of this research show that NGOs play key roles in educating journalists on their right to seek and publish information and fight impunity by prosecuting perpetrators of crimes against journalists. The NGOs also offer free legal services to journalists who are detained for crimes related to their work. This support has minimized the practice of self-censorship and built resilience among journalists to continue with their work." (Abstract)
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"This chapter deals with lèse-majesté laws and their impact on the exercise of freedom of political expression and journalism from the perspective of international human rights law. In doing so, it addresses the chilling effects of the application of a particular crime of lèse-majesté, namely
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defaming a head of state”, which are emphasized with historical and current examples from Turkey: a country that exemplifies the excesses in practice. Said excesses are assessed in light of the standards of freedom of political expression set by the case law of the European Court of Human Rights, which also demonstrates the excesses in other European countries and provides a comparative outlook. In conclusion, it is inferred that the mere existence of lèse-majesté crimes puts the rule of law at risk, thereby forcing journalists and other citizens alike to resort to self-censorship in violation of international human rights law as interpreted by the regional human rights mechanism." (Abstract)
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"This chapter focuses on the context of violence and political polarization in three Central American countries: Guatemala, Honduras and El Salvador, and analyses how these conditions negatively affect press freedom and the practice of journalism. The author argues that the notion of “insecure dem
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ocracies” can be applied to the reality of these countries and discusses relevant limitations for the work of media organizations and journalists, and how these constrains might impact journalists’ motivations to engage in self-censorship. The author concludes that the engagement of political, social and academic actors and journalists’ associations is necessary for improving the conditions for press freedom, the safety and security of journalists, plural and diverse media systems, and for deepening the understanding of self-censorship in these Central American countries." (Abstract)
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"This chapter examines the perceptions of Nigerian journalists towards the Nigerian Press Council Bill 2018 and the governments’ online surveillance. The study employs survey and interview methods: 217 Nigerian media practitioners selected from print and online media responded to the questionnaire
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while ten key informants were interviewed. The findings revealed that a majority of the respondents are concerned about the government’s effort in suppressing freedom of expression. They believe that personal interest rather than national interest constitutes the basis for the government’s online surveillance and the proposed new Press Council Bill, which a majority believe will gag the press and restrict freedom of expression in Nigeria. A majority of the respondents also consider the government’s online surveillance an impediment to their professional duties and a violation of their privacy. Hence, they believe that it is not unlikely that their digital presence has been tracked and monitored by government security agencies. As a result, respondents have resorted to avoiding certain topics considered critical of government while also avoiding activities on social media that may be considered controversial or suspicious. Hence, respondents believe protecting the anonymity of their sources and disguising their digital footprints are the needed safety precautions." (Abstract)
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"Safety of female journalists in and beyond the newsroom continues to stimulate debate on how risky environments can trigger self-censorship among journalists, yet few studies have investigated women journalists’ experience of risk in specific work contexts. This chapter examines the perception of
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risk among female journalists who cover political demonstrations, and how they negotiate such risks. Anchored in theories of media and gender, self-censorship and resilience, the chapter dwells on political demonstrations that have become pervasive in the more than 30-year rule of Uganda’s current president. Data were collected through focus group discussions with female reporters and structured in-depth interviews with newsroom managers. Findings indicate that covering political demonstrations is perceived as risky for female journalists, who are also increasingly aware of their vulnerability. This perceived vulnerability produces a deterrent effect on women’s enthusiasm to cover riots. Nonetheless, women rely on techniques that spur collective resilience, which in turn helps to avert self-censorship. Although focusing on political demonstrations, the instantiated perceptions would likely resonate with other situations in which female journalists work. Thus, applying a gender lens to future self-censorship and resilience studies may open new frontiers of understanding, especially of what gender-specific self-censorship and resilience practices thrive in different contexts." (Abstract)
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"This chapter’s point of departure lies in its focus on how journalists and media organizations navigate through unsafe environments and avoid self-censorship. The study specifically explores the connection between safety and self-censorship and journalist’s deployment of social media in the Uga
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ndan context. Through interviews and focus group discussions, the study shows that journalists and media organizations (sometimes) use social media to avoid covering unsafe news scenes and to bypass suppression intended to drive them into self-censorship. Journalists and media organizations are able to overcome state-instigated censorship by using platforms such as Facebook and Twitter to obtain journalistic material, which may not be accessible through conventional means. Using the case of the Ugandan government closure of Daily Monitor newspaper in 2013, the chapter shows that the media organization heavily relied on social media to remain in operation during the period when it was under siege. The chapter concludes that employing social media in journalism practice is one of the mechanisms used by journalists and media organizations to surmount safety problems and repression. The author acknowledges the safety problems arising from digital tools and platforms but argues that exploiting the advantages they present, such as being alternative avenues for newsgathering, reporting and dissemination, contributes profoundly to the survival of independent journalism in non-democratic societies." (Abstract)
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"The definition of censorship denotes direct or overt restriction on free expression or freedom of the media. The popular understanding of self-censorship involves a person’s involuntary self-silencing. A journalist’s wilful, personal, intentional self-censorship, at times motivated by selfish m
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otives, is often overlooked especially when there is complicit acceptance of political perspective or financial interest, or normalization/naturalization of unethical practices. Systems and ideologies can condition individuals to self-censor using what Louis Althusser has termed Ideological State Apparatuses and Repressive State Apparatuses, including interpellation. The Zimbabwean Crisis that has resulted in the polarization of Zimbabwean media along political lines demands an evaluation of the notion of self-censorship. Instead of merely focusing on the involuntary nature of self-censorship, there is need to assess instances when journalists self-censor and selfishly comply with political and commercial interests at the expense of serving the lofty ideals of the public good and public interest. Numerous examples exist where Zimbabwean journalists were abused and their rights violated leading to the adoption of self-preservation by such journalists and others when faced with the choice of whether to write or not to write, to tell or not tell. However, journalists are systematically recruited into party and commercial systems, and they have comfortably adopted a cosy demeanour to the extent of collaborating with powerful interest groups and formations. When journalists self-censor not because of fear of violence or threats or other safety concerns, it undermines the transcendental ideal of providing information as a public good and in the public/national interest." (Abstract)
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"In many transitional and conflict societies self-censorship is employed as a coping mechanism or survival strategy (Skjerdal, 2010; Tapsell, 2012). Recent research has examined self-censorship by journalists in countries in which there have been and continue to be media support and safety intervent
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ions. In some of these transitional and conflict-affected countries journalists routinely censor themselves to avoid jail, while others do so to avoid assassination or physical violence (Freedom House, 2018; Bar-Tal, 2015). Violent conflict has a negative effect on the free flow of information, in part due to self-censorship which impoverishes public debate (Bar-Tal, 2015). There has been limited discussion of the impacts of self-censorship among journalists on peacebuilding. This chapter will examine the chain of causality between traumatized journalists, self-censorship and peacebuilding and will suggest solutions to bolster journalistic communities in the context of trauma, fear and self-censorship." (Abstract)
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"This article takes UNESCO’s Academic Research Agenda on Safety of Journalists as its point of departure. We present an overview of contributions to a selection of research conferences and academic publications focusing on safety of journalists and categorize them according to the research agenda.
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The overall aim of the contributions is to discuss research on ideas andpractices that create unsafe conditions, as well as possible strategies and solutions from practical, theoretical, national orinternational perspectives. Through this exercise, we find where the focus areas are and what is lacking in current research on safety of journalists, and the discussion serves as an introduction to the chapters of this special issue." (Abstract)
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"The article recaps the main findings of the investigations presented in this special issue and seeks to answer the question “What can Northern journalism educators do to improve safety during fieldwork in the Global South?” The article builds mainly on qualitative interviews with former journal
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ism students who have done journalism fieldwork in dangerous situations as part of journalism education in Norway. It concludes by recommending the building of networks of mutual aid across countries and continents to research journalism safety and enlist the help of educators around the world in the training of journalism students." (Abstract)
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"This chapter explores mechanisms and causes that put indigenous journalists at risk in Latin America. It seeks to explain the nature of “indigenous journalism” as well as the differences and similarities between “indigenous journalism” and the journalisms found in mainstream media in Latin
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America. It analyses measures taken by indigenous journalists and indigenous communities to improve the safety of those who work in the indigenous media. Indigenous journalists are particularly likely to be engaged in struggles involving local communities resisting outside dominance. Therefore, indigenous journalists continue to be vulnerable to many types of threats and violence. The international community has so far paid little attention to the safety of indigenous journalists." (Abstract)
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"To support joint efforts to protect journalism, there is a growing need for research-based knowledge. Acknowledging this need, the aim of this publication is to highlight and fuel journalist safety as a field of research, to encourage worldwide participation, as well as to inspire further dialogues
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and new research initiatives. The contributions represent diverse perspectives on both empirical and theoretical research and offer many quantitatively and qualitatively informed insights. The articles demonstrate that a new important interdisciplinary research field is in fact emerging, and that the fundamental issue remains identical: Violence and threats against journalists constitute an attack on freedom of expression." (Back cover)
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