"To support joint efforts to protect journalism, there is a growing need for research-based knowledge. Acknowledging this need, the aim of this publication is to highlight and fuel journalist safety as a field of research, to encourage worldwide participation, as well as to inspire further dialogues
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and new research initiatives. The contributions represent diverse perspectives on both empirical and theoretical research and offer many quantitatively and qualitatively informed insights. The articles demonstrate that a new important interdisciplinary research field is in fact emerging, and that the fundamental issue remains identical: Violence and threats against journalists constitute an attack on freedom of expression." (Back cover)
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"People who exercise their right to freedom of expression through journalism should be able to practice their work without restrictions. They are, nonetheless, the constant targets of violence and threats. In an era of globalization and digitization, no single party can alone carry the responsibilit
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y for protection of journalism and freedom of expression. Instead, this responsibility must be assumed jointly by the state, the courts, media companies and journalist organizations, as well as by NGOs and civil society – on national as well as global levels. To support joint efforts to protect journalism, there is a growing need for research-based knowledge. Acknowledging this need, the aim of this publication is to highlight and fuel journalist safety as a field of research, to encourage worldwide participation, as well as to inspire further dialogues and new research initiatives. The contributions represent diverse perspectives on both empirical and theoretical research and offer many quantitatively and qualitatively informed insights. The articles demonstrate that a new important interdisciplinary research field is in fact emerging, and that the fundamental issue remains identical: Violence and threats against journalists constitute an attack on freedom of expression." (Abstract)
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"The summarised reports in this chapter show that the scope of safety and sacrifice is far greater than each actor alone or their sum can account for. Although the discussion did not offer an investigation into the USA and other mature democracies, it is clear from the survey in the European territo
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ry that safe havens are few and in between, and that even in stable democracies the conditions for journalism and free expression remain vulnerable and can deteriorate surprisingly fast." (Abstract)
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"This study aims to explore the level of journalists’ safety and investigates different types of threats that affect their work (actions) within the context (environment) of Pakistan. Drawing on the new institutionalism theory, this study posits that Pakistani journalists work in an unsafe institu
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tional environment where different safety threats affect their routine work and the overall quality of journalism in the country. Journalists’ feedback reveals that financial, physical, psychological, social and emotional threats affect their routine work and freedom of expression most. This study calls for broader investigation of threats to journalists’ safety beyond the direct physical, legal and psychological risks that are often taken into account by the international organizations monitoring violence against journalists." (Abstract)
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"There is a history to why the challenge of securing safety for journalism has become a prominent issue in many parts of the world. This is partly because of increased attacks on journalists, but it is also a function of global developments that have afforded space for the issue to come to fore as a
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major concern by the international community – with associated impact on other actors as well. Safety can, and should, be distinguished from other dimensions relevant to journalism – media freedom, pluralism, independence, gender and digital matters. At the same time, attention to safety – within a framework of rights, highlights the interconnections and wider possibilities of work on this subject. Furthermore, because knowledge about the topic is a relatively green-fields opportunity, academic engagement can have real impact. Looking ahead, with intensification of digital dynamics in societies, the issue of safety (affecting both off- and online worlds) is likely to increasingly be a key component in the emerging and broadening ecology of journalistic practice." (Abstract)
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"The study of journalists’ safety around the world is one of the areas that clearly require international collaboration. This chapter highlights three distinct models of scientific collaboration: the centralized, the correspondent, and the coordinated cooperation model. The Worlds of Journalism St
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udy exemplifies the latter approach. Using this project as an exemplar of large-scale collaborative research, the chapter reflects on the evolution of the Worlds of Journalism Study: the way it is organized, its innovativeuse of democratic structures, and some of the problems it faced in the process. Over the years, the study has evolved into a democratic tribe of scholars; it has become an intellectual community that extends to 67 countries around the world. In the future, collaborative research may become the norm rather than the exception. Few areas in our field are better disposed to this kind of scholarship than the study of journalists’ safety." (Abstract)
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"When discussing the safety of journalists, it is quite natural that the focus is foremost on practitioners: those professional journalists, citizen journalists and other media workers who report about incidents, processes and their consequences from troubled sites around the world. Their accounts o
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f the dangers and problems encountered in their work are important evidence on which efforts to improve the situation can be based. But it is not sufficient, indeed not right, to leave practitioners alone in this struggle. One resource that could make a valuable contribution is research. But what is or could be the role of researchers in the context of improving the safety of journalists? Why should the research community include this topic in their research agenda? Perhaps the main argument can be derived from the Finlandia Declaration, which was accepted on the UNESCO World Press Freedom Day in Helsinki in May 2016. It states, among other things, that “the right to information is critical for informed decision-making” (Finlandia Declaration 2016). The Declaration of course refers to what professional and citizen journalists and other media workers are doing, but at the same time, this statement actually applies to what scientific research can do: accu mulate reliable and accurate information about the obstacles to exercising the right to information. In this respect, journalists’ work and researchers’ studies on journalists’ work complement one another and serve the same purpose, that of making our world a better place for citizens." (Page 141)
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"The effectiveness of any measures taken to address the problems of journalism safety ultimately depends on our ability to understand the complex nature and dynamics of risk to journalists. Mapping the scale of the problem through the systematic collection of data on threats over time is therefore a
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crucial step toward establishing an empirical evidence base that can serve to tailor interventions aimed at safeguarding journalists and their work. Doing so requires us to examine the occurrence of a wide range of threats to a diverse community of journalists within a varied set of hostile environments. Importantly, it challenges us to explore how the multidimensional nature of risk to journalists should be measured." (Abstract)
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"According to The Committee to Protect Journalists, 2 per cent of all journalists killed since 1992 worked on the sports beat. At present, however, we have limited knowledge of the specific dangers faced by sports journalists. This chapter presents findings from exploratory research on 78 reports of
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violations of the media freedom or personal safety of sports journalists. Threats to media freedom include being banned from press conferences or events, the seizure of passports or denial of accreditation. The personal safety of sports journalists is compromised through verbal abuse, assaults, attacks, personal and social media harassment, detention, legal pressure, and killings. The key perpetrators identified in the sample were fans, athletes and coaches, owners and officials of sports clubs and national associations, international sports federations, and authorities in authoritarian regimes hosting sports mega-events." (Abstract)
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"More journalists are being killed and threatened around the world than at any time before. How do we account for these disturbing trends and why do journalists increasingly put themselves in harm’s way? This chapter argues that if we are to better understand the motivations of journalists and the
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mobilisation of journalism as a communicative and collective enterprise, one that is now capable of both reporting on and recognising the human plight of others in violent, uncivil places, it is important to understand how journalism is caught up in the vortices of history and the globalising present. The discussion develops on the important work of Jeffrey Alexander (2006), reconceiving journalism in and through the prism of the ‘Civil Sphere’, and inflected here both historically and globally. In a world of globalized communications, journalism’s capacity to report from uncivil places, I argue, has become geographically expanded, culturally deepened and, in important respects, historically and normatively compelled." (Abstract)
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"In the last Afghan solar year (22 March 2015 – 21 March 2016), twelve journalists and media workers were killed, exceeding any previous year in recent history. In June 2016, the US photographer David Gilkey and his interpreter, journalist Zabihullah Tamanna, were killed in a Taliban attack in Maj
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rah, southern Afghanistan. Approximately three hundred journalists left Afghanistan in 2015. More may follow. The journalists who left last year are relatively few considering the quarter million Afghans who came to Europe in 2015 to seek asylum. Nevertheless, they all share some of the same reasons for leaving. Most important are the high level of threats and the lack of security, both of which affect media workers seriously. In a broad-based Deutsche Welle-report, journalists complain of being “under suspicion from all sides”, and claim that besides the Taliban, the government as well “puts journalists under pressure. Then there are the mafia and the warlords”. The situation has parallels in other countries ravaged by conflict, today not least in Syria and Iraq, but also in neighbouring Pakistan. The difference is that Afghanistan has been in a situation of constant war, occupation, and violent conflict for close to forty years, meaning that a vast majority of the country’s population has not experienced any lasting period of peace and stability. This may be one of the more profound explanations for the current exodus. Hopes have been raised too many times, only to be dashed. Many journalists do not see a future for free media and journalism in Afghanistan, despite the fact that the Constitution guarantees free expression." (Introduction)
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"Both long-standing and innovative partnership models suggest that collaborative newsgathering by international and local journalists has been an invaluable practice to get the news in unsafe environments and out to global audiences. As violence, often deadly and nearly always unpunished, multiplies
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against all journalists, and foreign correspondence is cut back while many news media struggle financially, this safety mechanism is at risk precisely when it is most necessary." (Abstract)
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"This chapter explores mechanisms and causes that put indigenous journalists at risk in Latin America. It seeks to explain the nature of “indigenous journalism” as well as the differences and similarities between “indigenous journalism” and the journalisms found in mainstream media in Latin
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America. It analyses measures taken by indigenous journalists and indigenous communities to improve the safety of those who work in the indigenous media. Indigenous journalists are particularly likely to be engaged in struggles involving local communities resisting outside dominance. Therefore, indigenous journalists continue to be vulnerable to many types of threats and violence. The international community has so far paid little attention to the safety of indigenous journalists." (Abstract)
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"Within this global context, UNESCO is the UN agency with the mandate to advance “the mutual knowledge and understanding of peoples, through all means of mass communication” and to promote “the free flow of ideas by word and image”. UNESCO has defined press freedom as designating the conditi
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ons of media freedom, pluralism and independence, as well as the safety of journalists (UNESCO 2014b). As the holder of a global mandate in the field of work with the safe practice of journalism, the Organization has led the initiative to develop the UN Plan of Action on Safety of Journalists and the Issue of Impunity (2012). Grasping the complexity of the safety issue, the Plan defines a wide range of actions to be carried out by a variety of stakeholders to enhance the overall safety of those involved in journalism practice in a broad sense, including “journalists, media workers and social media producers generating a significant amount of public interest journalism”, in both conflict and non-conflict situations, online and offline, and with a view to strengthening peace, democracy, and development worldwide." (Abstract)
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"Journalists face numerous threats from different stakeholders. In developing countries, internal threats coming from inside media organizations – threats that have a serious impact on the professional, economic and psychological lives of journalists – are less researched. This research is an at
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tempt to identify the various internal threats faced by journalists and the implications of these threats on their daily lives. It was conducted among Indian journalists during March and April of 2015. Results revealed that sudden suspension, dismissal from the service, de-promotion, non-allocation of work, transfer of department and place of work are some of the internal threats faced by the journalists." (Abstract)
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"This chapter illuminates new understanding about the dangers experienced by Australian news photographers on international and domestic assignments. Using oral history methodology, the interviews with 60 present and former Australian newspaper photographers revealed a litany of psychologically and
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physically hazardous aspects of their work, and the safety training available. Despite the implementation of trauma counselling and hostile environment courses, press photography continues to be a highly dangerous and precarious vocation." (Abstract)
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"At a UNESCO research conference on the safety of journalists during the celebrations of World Press Freedom Day in Helsinki, Finland on 3 and 4 May 2016, UNESCO declared “that the Safety of Journalists paved the way for academic research cooperation”. To advance such cooperation the Centre for
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Freedom of the Media (CFOM), University of Sheffield, UK, supported by UNESCO, announced the launch of a journalism safety research network (JSRN). The network is hosted by CFOM (http://www.cfom.org.uk) and scholars, media workers and others have been invited to sign up for future academic networking opportunities and to the prospect for greater research communication and collaboration in the area of journalism safety." (Abstract)
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"This chapter focuses on gender dynamics in media safety in Nigeria. It critically examines the safety challenges journalists in Nigeria face in executing their duties in a country that has experienced different forms of conflicts, ranging from political instability, organized crime, terrorism, and
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communal conflict. It analyses these challenges in relation to gender. To achieve this, the researcher made use of primary data generated from interviews with journalists. The chapter discloses issues of gender-based discrimination, sexual and violent harassment, abuse at work and outside work, murder, and unwarranted arrest and intimidation, showing they are among the challenges journalists face. It identifies some gender-specific safety concerns among the journalists interviewed. Importantly, it finds that safety challenges such as sexual harassment are hardly reported and when reported, they are usually trivialized, most times re-shaming the victim(s) and causing the victim to shy away from reporting future occurrences." (Abstract)
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"The United Nations (UN) has played an increasing role in promoting the safety of journalists. Yet little has been done to study its work from a historical perspective. This paper explores global attempts to promote journalist safety carried out by the UN system, from its inception in 1945 until 201
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6. It also analyses the past to ascertain the relevance of the UN Plan of Action on the Safety of Journalists and the Issue of Impunity. Never since its approval in 2012 has the UN progressed so much in such a short time in this field of normative work. This affords a historic opportunity to tackle this issue meaningfully." (Abstract)
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