"This study examined journalists' perceptions regarding the legal system's ability to protect them against online harassment. By utilizing open-ended survey responses from respondents with varying levels of trust in the legal system, the findings suggested a need for increased technical proficiency,
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resources, and priority within the legal system to adequately address the issue. Additionally, a reciprocal relationship between the normalization of online harassment within the journalistic profession and the legal system's commitment to providing protection was identified. However, the study also found that when the legal system's mediated approach to online harassment is positive, it affects attitudes and norms relating to legal protection. Consequently, it reveals a unique insight into how journalists respond to the message conveyed by fair treatment and respect from the legal system. Notably, this result implies that when such messages are internalized, journalists feel more empowered to take measures against online harassment. As a result of this analysis, I propose that current laws should be implemented more effectively and that policy strategies should be developed to positively influence social norms and social control to bolster journalistic autonomy and freedom of speech in the digital age." (Abstract)
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"Para que el periodismo pueda realizar su función democrática, es preciso que el contexto político, social y económico le permita su desarrollo en toda forma. Aunque en el pasado estuvo caracterizado por la cooptación y la censura, el periodismo mexicano reciente ha mostrado prácticas innovado
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ras y cambios decisivos en la identidad y roles profesionales de quienes lo practican. Para dar cuenta de estos cambios y contribuir a un conocimiento más preciso de la realidad periodística de México, este reporte presenta los resultados de una encuesta representativa nacional aplicada a 486 periodistas que forma parte del estudio internacional Worlds of Journalism. En este reporte se incluyen hallazgos sobre las características sociodemográficas de las personas periodistas, sus perfiles profesionales, sus orientaciones éticas y epistemológicas, los valores que guían su labor, sus percepciones de autonomía y su relación con el Estado; así como las precariedades, los riesgos y las violencias que les afectan, incluyendo las consecuencias físicas, psicológicas y laborales provocadas por la pandemia, así como las medidas de seguridad que toman para protegerse. Los resultados sugieren un periodismo sofisticado en sus valores, roles y perspectivas éticas a pesar de las limitaciones que las inadecuadas condiciones laborales y la falta de autonomía le imponen." (Resumen)
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"In Mexico and Honduras, journalists face violence from state and non-state actors and almost complete impunity. Given a lack of effective state protection, some resort to alternative means of (self-)protection and justice-seeking. Via analysis of 67 interviews with journalists and protection actors
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, this article shows how many reporters use journalistic and profession-specific forms of self-protection and analyses their benefits and challenges. It adopts a novel analytical approach building on insights from diverse areas of research on people’s responses to violence and insecurity. Scholarship on civilian responses to armed conflict offers a relevant framework for understanding self-protection measures. Although measures such as “avoidance” and “accommodation” of violent actors are a means of survival and short-term physical protection, they bring significant new risks. Above all, they can undermine trust from the public and within the profession and the usefulness of journalism for society. Drawing on literature on the protection of human rights defenders, the analytical framework is extended to show how some journalists also engage in broader self-protection strategies around transforming their work. These strategies combine protection and professionalisation and aim to boost journalists’ internal and external support and credibility." (Abstract)
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"Can political leaders’ anti-media rhetoric encourage violence against journalists and undermine media freedom in democracies? While there is evidence that anti-media public discourse can amplify negative attitudes and behaviors towards the media, there is still uncertainty as to whether and how p
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oliticians’ verbal attacks against the “lying press” and “fake news” may incentivize non-state actors to physically attack journalists. Building on dangerous speech, populist communication, and hostile media perceptions scholarship, I show that although anti-media public discourse may not feature explicit calls for violence, it increases the incidence of physical attacks against journalists. Using qualitative content analysis and survival models, I analyze original data on the content and timing of 696 anti-media messages featuring government officials and the timing and location of physical attacks by non-state actors against journalists during Hugo Chávez’s presidency. Estimates of Cox and instrumental variable models show that the frequency of anti-media messages is positively associated with the hazard of violence against journalists and that the relationship between discourse and violence is likely causal. I also find that the effect of discourse on violence is moderated by local patterns of electoral competition: anti-media discourse’s effect on violence against journalists is largest in locations where elections are highly contested." (Abstract)
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"Overall, our study found that many journalists and media workers from minority backgrounds were experiencing online harassment and abuse from members of the public, and that often, this behaviour was considered ‘part of the job’ in the modern, digital environment. While we found some employers
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were making good efforts to assist their employees from diverse backgrounds, too often issues such as industry complacency and in-built (systemic, institutional) racism and discrimination were impacting on organisations’ ability to properly protect diverse media workers. Our data also demonstrates that, sometimes, journalists from diverse backgrounds were operating in what they considered to be hostile work environments. Further, we found that while many were aware of both informal and formal reporting mechanisms, they found most comfort and support from friends, family and other diverse co-workers rather than from any of the supports that existed. The research suggests that while some were familiar with formal reporting mechanisms, many were not; and many also had little faith in the ability of formal mechanisms to achieve change. There was a strong sense that people from diverse backgrounds did not want to be identified as the ‘difficult’ person in their organisation and that acceptance, adaptation and sometimes silence were used as ways to navigate the environment, rather than formal complaints mechanisms." (Executive summary, pages 4-5)
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"Australia and New Zealand have reputations as countries prone to catastrophic and frequent natural and man-made disasters. Therefore, it is no surprise that antipodean academics want trauma-informed education for their journalism students. This study presents the Australian-New Zealand results of a
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2021 survey exploring educators’ attitudes toward embedding trauma literacy into journalism curriculum. It mirrors a survey from the UK-based Journalism Education and Trauma Research Group. The Australian-New Zealand results confirm that educators want more training to effectively embed trauma-informed reporting into their curricula. The discussion notes the availability of local, research-based teaching materials, and identifies barriers to implementation." (Abstract)
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"This study examined the effects of online harassment on journalists’ psychological trauma and their intention to leave work. It also investigated whether journalists’ psychological trauma mediates the effects of online harassment on their intention to leave the profession and whether gender mak
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es a difference in that relationship. An online survey of 404 South Korean journalists provided three categories of online harassment that journalists experience: (1) aggressive and abusive expression, (2) disclosure of private information, and (3) cyberstalking and hacking. The findings of this study show that aggressive and abusive expression was the most frequent type of online harassment whereas cyberstalking and hacking was the least frequent. As expected, online harassment was found to be positively associated with journalists’ psychological trauma (PTSD symptoms) and intention to leave work. The results further indicate that journalists’ psychological trauma originating from online harassment frequently resulted in an intention to leave work. Interestingly, journalists’ psychological trauma was a significant mediator in the relationship between psychological trauma levels and intention to leave work for female journalists, but not for male journalists." (Abstract)
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"The purpose of this study is to investigate the extent of digital surveillance by Arab authorities, which face risks and threats of surveillance, and how journalists seek to press freedom by using tools and techniques to communicate securely. Design/methodology/approach: The study used focus group
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discussions with 14 journalists from Syria, Saudi Arabia, Libya, Yemen, Oman, Jordan and Egypt. While in Egypt, questionnaires were distributed to 199 journalists from both independent and semi-governmental outlets to investigate how Egyptian journalists interpret the new data protection law and its implications for press freedom. Findings: The study indicated that journalists from these countries revealed severe censorship by their respective governments, an element inconsistent with the Arab Constitution. The recommendation of the study encourages media organisations to play a more active role in setting policies that make it easier for journalists to adopt and use digital security tools, while Egyptian journalists see the law as a barrier to media independence because it allows the government to exercise greater information control through digital policy and imposes regulatory rules on journalists. Practical implications: The study identifies practical and theoretical issues in Arab legislation and may reveal practices of interest to scientists researching the balance between data protection, the right of access to information and media research as an example of contemporary government indirect or ‘‘soft’’ censorship methods. Originality/value: To the best of the authors’ knowledge, this paper is one of the first research contributions to analyse the relationships between Arab authoritarians who used surveillance to restrict freedom of the press after the Arab Spring revolutions of 2011 to keep themselves in power as long as they could. In addition, Egypt’s use of surveillance under new laws allowed the regimes to install software on the journalists’ phones that enabled them to read the files and emails and track their locations; accordingly, journalists can be targeted by the cyberattack and can be arrested." (Abstract)
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"Background: A current need in journalistic frontline work is to understand the potential psychological and physical traumatic consequences that may result from on-duty appointments. Journalists are active in frontline zones to report on conflicts, crises, and natural disasters. In the Middle East a
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nd North Africa (MENA) region, reporters are not equipped or trained mentally or emotionally to handle stressful events. Most journalists suffer from certain degrees of post-traumatic mental and physical disorders associated with their frontline duties.
Objective: The objective of this exploratory study is to provide comprehensive insights into challenges faced by journalists reporting in conflict zones in the MENA region.
Methods: This research study is based on a qualitative research approach where data was collected by directly interviewing eight journalists who have covered frontline conflicts and disasters in the MENA region. The collected qualitative data was analysed by conducting a thematic analysis to appreciate emerging categories. The ontology of critical realism was adopted to recognise the real feelings and experiences of the responding journalists.
Results: This original study presents six themes emerging from the data and researcher triangulation. The health and social issues in MENA are found to be most critical for high-risk reporting. Conclusion: Amidst the psychological and physical problems, all journalists did not give up their jobs or ask for privileges. Media houses could consider a more robust training plan based on health and safety to prepare these journalists." (Abstract)
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"The public’s increased access to journalists via social networks is arguably the defining shift in audience-media relations over the past two decades. While some laud this potential for dialogue, the reality is that many journalists face targeted hostility, with women often subjected to particula
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rly challenging content. Underpinning this project is the question of how contemporary social media dynamics, and particularly negative or hostile interactions, affect journalists in Ireland. Drawing on interviews with 36 national-level female journalists, this project documents their experiences in their own words, analyses how they handle negativity, and explores how they think those with power should respond. The project also includes focus groups with 40 student journalists who are grappling with the expectations around social media use moving forward in their careers." (Abstract)
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"Adjusting the focus to the time and research of the present, this chapter analyzes two case studies that occurred before and after the revitalization of the global #MeToo movement in 2017. The selected cases investigate how women have used social media platforms to combat VAW. The first case is Daf
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tar Hekayat El Mudawana, a blog that was created to expose sexual harassment and rape crimes—such as the #Fairmont_crime, which involved the gang rape of a young woman in 2014. The blog acted as a safe space for female survivors to tell their stories without exposing their identities. The second case focuses on Bassam Ahmed Zaki, who was exposed through social media in 2020 and later charged and incarcerated for serial rape." (Abstract)
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"The authors saw the need to explore the emotional labour experiences of media practitioners owing to the sparse literature on the phenomenon from an African perspective. The study explored how media practitioners explain emotional labour, the factors that predispose them to emotional labour experie
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nces, and the emotions they display in carrying out their daily roles. Adopting a qualitative approach, thirteen (13) media practitioners (including journalists) were sampled using both purposive and snowball sampling techniques. Nine (9) of the participants were male, with most of them being Christians (N=11). It was found that participants’ responses clustered around four (4) themes: generic level meaning, where they described emotional labour as constituting “living a lie” or “intentional pretense”; dimensions of emotional labour, which were identified to be enhancement and suppression. Also, two main predisposing factors to media practitioners’ emotional labour experiences were found: Occupational display culture and feedback/pressure from the public. Media practitioners exhibit both negative and positive emotions as they dispense their duties at work. It is recommended that regulatory bodies and journalist associations advance occupational safety and health standards to boost the psychological health of media personnel through collaborations with psychologists and other mental health professionals. We urge all institutions that train journalists and media practitioners to incorporate psychology and mental health modules in their curricula." (Abstract)
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"The continual threats against the lives of journalists have been blamed for Ghana’s decline in the World Press Freedom Index ranking for the past two years. Even though much of the evidence for this has primarily been anecdotal, various efforts have been undertaken to compile reports of abuses th
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rough media monitoring projects to give a realistic picture of the status of safety of journalists in Ghana. While these have proven to be critical reference points, they fall short of giving a comprehensive picture of the scope and depth of issues relating to safety of journalists. This study used a survey and key informant interviews to elicit the views and refections of key stakeholders on the matter. Among other fndings, it was established that police, political fanatics, politicians, security operatives, government offcials, and other journalists were among the top perpetrators of safety violations against journalists. Verbal abuse was predominant among violations suffered. Males tend to suffer physical abuse more than females while females, on the other hand, are subjected to more online trolling. Many of the respondents were dissatisfed with the posture of law enforcement agencies and the Ghana Journalists Association concerning journalists’ safety. The study also found that safety provisions by media organisations (e.g., counselling support, legal aid, medical support) need to be improved. The study recommends, among others, that the state must ensure the safety and protection of journalists and that media organisations must make proactive investments to secure the safety of their employees." (Abstract)
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"This study sought to use the self-reporting method of survey as well as key informant interviews to investigate the depth and spread of the problem. A total of 115 respondents took part in the survey. Additionally, eight interviews were conducted with key stakeholders. The study found that the most
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common infraction was verbal abuse. Colleagues, police, political fanatics, politicians, security operatives and government officials, were among the top perpetrators of safety violations against journalists. A sizeable portion (albeit fewer) were dissatisfied with their workplace safety provisions and minimal confidence in the concern of their employers for their well-being. About half of respondents indicated their media organisations did not make provisions for safety gear for covering potentially dangerous beats. Many of the respondents thought that the posture, attitude and actions of key state actors, law enforcement agencies as well as their own association (GJA) concerning their safety were unsatisfactory. The study recommends that the government ensures the security and safety of journalists and media organizations. Media organizations must ensure a safe and toxic-free work environment through codes of practice, policies, and enforcement; and journalists become familiar with the various types of safety breaches and corrective measures that can be taken." (Abstract)
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"This research is based on 28 in-depth interviews with Kenya-based journalists who report terrorism. The objective of the research was to recount their lived experiences. The theme of safety of journalists comprised psychological and physical safety of the newspeople, and there were various ways in
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which the psychological and individual safety of the journalists covering terrorism and related events was at risk. The psychological safety included traumatic events leading to sleeplessness and nightmares, loss of memory, and some journalists resorting to alcohol abuse in a bid to cope with the traumatic experiences. These physical safety concerns for some journalists included threats of death by fanatical religious groups, while other participants said that they were threatened with death because of their coverage of terrorism and related activities in Kenya." (Abstract)
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"The study used survey-style descriptive research. All of southwest Nigeria’s media outlets made up the population. 200 respondents made up the study’s sample, using a multistage sampling approach that included stratified random and simple random sampling techniques. A questionnaire titled “Le
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vel of Safety of Journalists Questionnaire” was used to gather data (LSJQ). The instrument’s reliability was assessed using the Cronbach Alpha technique, and a reliability co-efficient of 0.81 was found. The validity of the instrument was proven through the face and content validity. Both descriptive and inferential statistics were used to examine the data acquired; more specifically, descriptive statistics were utilized for the research question and t-tests were employed for the research hypothesis. The study found a modest level of safety for journalists covering elections, and there is no discernible difference between male and female journalists' perceptions of this safety. Considering the results of this investigation, it was suggested that media organizations step up their efforts by offering the required protective gear to reporters during election seasons. Government and nongovernmental organizations should work together to protect journalists during election seasons. There should be public awareness campaigns and programs against election-related violence against journalists." (Abstract)
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"Female journalists often face a dual challenge when reporting on elections, grappling with routine attacks both as women and as professionals. This study aims to explore the safety concerns of female journalists covering elections in Lagos state, Nigeria, and investigate their attitudes towards the
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se concerns, their awareness, and utilization of available safety measures. Using an explanatory sequential method, we conducted a questionnaire survey with 40 female journalists and followed up with in-depth interviews of two senior female journalists. Findings revealed that sexual harassment emerged as a common offline threat (87.5%), while libelous comments (75%) and stalking (75%) posed significant online concerns. Despite these alarming safety statistics, female journalists agreed that safety is a concern (x*= 3.72); while expressing that safety concerns would not significantly affect their election coverage (mean = 2.70). Furthermore, there is a disparity between high awareness (mean = 4.00) and low adoption (mean = 3.12) of available safety measures among female journalists. In addition, the interviews underscored the absence of substantial support from media organizations during election coverage, exacerbating the vulnerabilities faced by female journalists. This lack of institutional backing warrants immediate attention to foster a safer reporting environment." (Abstract)
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"This study investigates the motivations for the hostility towards the press by the audience and how to control online harassment of journalists in Nigeria. Data for this study are from online and face-to-face semi-structured interviews of 54 Nigerians in Nigeria. Finding shows that perceived journa
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listic malpractice and unethical behaviour motivate Nigerians to engage in online harassment of journalists in Nigeria. The study also uncovers what the audience in Nigeria offer as preventive measures to online harassment of journalists. These include (i) improved transparency, (ii) improved ethical conduct by journalists, and (iii) procedural and prosecutorial measures (e.g. implementation of a robust professional code of conduct and enacting safety laws for journalists) as ways of eradicating online harassment of journalists in Nigeria. Suggestions for future research areas were delineated." (Abstract)
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"Scholarship has pointed to an artificial hierarchy between political and lifestyle journalism that is rooted in norms and values stemming from Western-liberal thought. Within this distinction, lifestyle journalism has been subordinated as occupying a marginal or peripheral position in the field. Ye
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t, how journalists perceive this distinction has rarely been studied empirically. This study draws on concepts of ‘boundary work’ and ‘othering’ to examine how political and lifestyle journalists discursively reinforce and contest boundaries and hierarchies. Through semi-structured interviews with 22 lifestyle and 26 political journalists and editors in South Africa, we show that political and lifestyle journalists engaged in both intra-field (self-)expansion, and (self-)expulsion and (self-)othering, by evoking several boundary markers. Boundaries were reinforced through gendered discourses, autonomy ideals, claims to specialization and accessibility in news beats and presentation, beliefs about political journalism’s preservation of humanity, and greater risks to safety of political journalists. Boundaries were challenged by politicizing lifestyle journalism and popularizing political journalism, providing a counter-narrative to political journalism’s negativity, and treating lifestyle journalism as economically beneficial." (Abstract)
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"This article contributes to our understanding of the notion of mob censorship from the Ugandan context by examining the nature and consequences of harassment targeting women journalists on social media. Drawing on research about online harassment and censorship, we link mob violence in physical spa
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ces to harassment encountered on social media from the perspectives of women journalists. We illustrate that the different forms of harassment enabled by online platforms present serious challenges for individual journalists, and the journalism profession. Our findings suggest that online attacks on reporters include comments that denigrate women’s bodies, and discredit journalists’ reportage. The harassment compels women journalists to engage in online hibernation and censorship." (Abstract)
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