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Digital Hate: The Global Conjuncture of Extreme Speech

Sahana Udupa, Iginio Gagliardone, Peter Hervik (eds.)

Bloomington, Indiana: Indiana University Press (2021), 266 pp.

"The euphoria that has accompanied the birth and expansion of the internet as a "liberation technology" is increasingly eclipsed by an explosion of vitriolic language on a global scale. Digital Hate: The Global Conjuncture of Extreme Speech provides the first distinctly global and interdisciplinary ... more

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Online Intimidation: Controlling the Narrative in the Balkans. Annual Digital Rights Report 2021

Balkan Investigative Reporting Network (BIRN) (2021), 64 pp.

"From August 2020 until August this summer, we recorded almost 800 cases of digital rights violations in eight countries of south-eastern Europe: Bosnia and Herzegovina, Croatia, Hungary, Kosovo, Montenegro, North Macedonia, Romania and Serbia. Violations took place not just on TikTok, but also on F ... more

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Courage Against Hate

Facebook (2021), 128 pp.

"The Courage Against Hate initiative has been brought together by Facebook for the purpose of sparking cross-sector, pan-European dialogue and action to combat hate speech and extremism. This collection of articles unites European academic analysis with practitioners who are actively working on coun ... more

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Antisemitism and Anti-Vax Discourse in Europe: A Report on Conspiracy Ideologies and Anti-Jewish Hatred on Facebook and Twitter

Marianna Karakoulaki, Giulia Dessi

Media Diversity Institute (2021), 57 pp.

"[...] we tried to identify the connection between anti-vax conspiracy theories and antisemitism, and the way they spread on social media. Eight media monitors from Get The Trolls Out! partner organisations in Belgium (Flanders), Belgium (Wallonia), France, Germany, Greece, Hungary, Poland, and the ... more

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A Comparative Study on Hate Speech and Incitement to Violence in Syrian Media. Second Monitoring Round (2020)

Syrian Center for Media and Freedom of Expression (SCM) (2021), 53 pp.

"The Syrian media of various types and geographical distribution use hate speech and incitement to Violence disproportionately. The average use of public hate speech in the Syrian media was (17.99%) as a percentage of the monitored content of the study sample, which is considered a low percentage wh ... more

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Das Selbstmordattentat im Bild: Aktualität und Geschichte von Märtyrerzeugnissen

Verena Straub

Bielefeld: transcript (2021), 314 pp.

"Selbstmordattentate werden seit jeher von Bildern begleitet und durch diese bestimmt. Von Märtyrerpostern über Videotestamente bis hin zu Computersimulationen und Livestreams vom Tatort - die Bildproduktionen der Milizen sind auf vielfältige Weise an der Tat beteiligt und müssen als Akteure im ... more

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Hass im Netz ist nicht Teil des Jobs: Ein Leitfaden zum Umgang mit digitaler Gewalt

Anna-Lena von Hodenberg

Berlin: HateAid (2021), 48 pp.

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Grenzenloser Hass im Internet: Dramatische Lage in ganz Europa

Berlin: Hate Aid (2021), 5 pp.

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El límite democrático de las expresiones de odio: Principios constitucionales, modelos regulatorios y políticas públicas

Víctor Abramovich, María José Guembe, María Capurro Robles (coord.)

Buenos Aires: Teseo (2021), 424 pp.

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Maria Ressa: Fighting an Onslaught of Online Violence. A Big Data Analysis

Julie Posetti, Diana Maynard, Kalina Bontcheva

Washington, DC: International Center for Journalists (ICFJ) (2021), 44 pp.

"This groundbreaking collaborative case study is the most comprehensive assessment of online violence against a prominent woman journalist to date. We conducted a forensic analysis of the torrent of social media attacks on internationally celebrated digital media pioneer Maria Ressa over a five-year ... more

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Hate Narratives and Disinformation in Online Media in Albania

Ilda Londo

Tirana: South East European Network for Professionalization of Media (SEENPM) (2021), 27 pp.

"The case studies analyzed here show that, in general, the mainstream media does not produce hate speech narratives on its own, but does become a vehicle for carrying them. The greatest producers of hate narratives, division, disinformation, and polarization remain the political actors, partly becau ... more

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Social Media Hate Speech Mitigation Field Guide

Sara Budarz, Kendi Gikunda

#defyhatenow (2021), 80 pp.

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Online Hate Network Spreads Malicious COVID-19 Content Outside the Control of Individual Social Media Platforms

N. Velásquez, R. Leahy et al.

Nature: Scientific Reports, volume 11, issue 11549 (2021), 8 pp.

"We show that malicious COVID-19 content, including racism, disinformation, and misinformation, exploits the multiverse of online hate to spread quickly beyond the control of any individual social media platform. We provide a first mapping of the online hate network across six major social media pla ... more

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Hate Speech 2020

Tina Gogoladze

Media Development Foundation (MDF) (2021), 32 pp.

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Online Caste-Hate Speech: Pervasive Discrimination and Humiliation on Social Media

Damni Kain, Shivangi Narayan, Torsha Sarkar, Gurshabad Grover

Centre for Internet and Society (CIS) (2021), 32 pp.

"In India, religious texts, social customs, rituals, and everyday cultural practices legitimise the use of hate speech against marginalised caste groups. Notions of "purity" of “upper-caste” groups, and conversely of "pollution" of “lower-caste” groups, have made the latter subject to discri ... mination, violence and dehumanisation. These dynamics invariably manifest online, with social media platforms becoming sites of caste discrimination and humiliation. This report explores two research questions. First, what are the specific contours of caste-hate speech and abuse online? Semi-structured interviews with 12 scholars and activists belonging to Dalit, Bahujan and Adivasi (DBA) groups show that marginalised groups regularly face hate and harassment based on their caste. In addition to the overt hate, DBA individuals and groups are often targeted with abuse for availing reservations – a constitutionally mandated right. More covert forms of hate and abuse are also prevalent: trolls mix caste names and words from different languages together so that their comments appear meaningless to individuals who are not keenly aware of the local context. Such hateful expression often emerges as a reaction from “upper-caste” groups to DBA resistance and social justice movements. Our respondents reported that the hateful expression can sometimes silence caste-marginalised groups and individuals, exclude them from conversations, and adversely impact their physical and mental well-being. The second question we explore is how popular social media platforms and online spaces moderate caste-hate speech and abuse. We analysed the community guidelines, policies and transparency reports of Facebook, Twitter, YouTube and Clubhouse. We find that Facebook, Twitter and YouTube incorporated "caste" as a protected characteristic in their hate speech and harassment policies only in the last two or three years – many years after they entered Indian and South Asian markets – showing a disregard for the regional contexts of their users. Even after these policy changes, many platforms – whose forms for reporting harmful content list gender and race – still do not list caste. Social media companies should radically increase their investment and capacity in understanding regional contexts and languages; they must focus on the dynamics of casteist hate and abuse. They will need to collaborate with a diverse set of DBA activists to ensure that their community guidelines effectively tackle overt, covert and hyper -local forms of caste-hate speech and abuse, and that their implementation and reporting processes match these policy commitments." (Eexecutive summary) more

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Hate Network: Hate Speech on Social Media Platforms in the Palestinian Context and its Impact on Their Digital Rights

Nijmeh Ali

Arab Center for Social Media Advancement (2021), 46 pp.

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Online Extremism in North Macedonia: Politics, Ethnicities and Religion

Simeon Dukic

London: Institute for Strategic Dialogue (ISD) (2021), 32 pp.

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Right-Wing Extremism on the Internet: 2020-2021 Report

Flemming Ipsen, Franziska Böndgen et al.

Mainz: jugendschutz.net (2021), 31 pp.

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Counter-Terrorism, Social Media and the Regulation of Extremist Content

Levi J. West

In: Counter-Terrorism: The Ethical Issues

Seumas Miller; Adam Henschke; Jonas Feltes (eds.)

Edward Elgar Publishing (2021), pp. 116-128

"As highlighted above, the development and refinement of counter-terrorism policies and practices by social media and technology companies has come about as a function of the evolving nature of terrorist and extremist entities’ exploitation of said platforms. The challenges highlighted above, name ... more

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Addressing Hate Speech on Social Media: Contemporary Challenges

Jonathan Bright, Antonella Perini, Anne Ploin, Reja Wyss

Paris: UNESCO (2021), 10 pp.

"This discussion paper seeks to give an overview of the key aspects that need to be taken into consideration to address the occurrence of hate speech on social media, be it through concrete regulations by social media companies, counter efforts and legislations or preventive educational measures. Th ... more