Safety of Journalists CFOM Sheffield

The Centre for Freedom of the Media (CFOM) at the University of Sheffield (UK) is an interdisciplinary research centre with global outreach on issues of media freedom, journalism safety, editorial standards and impunity. During the 2022 Academic Consultation on the UN Plan of Action on the Safety of Journalists and the Issue of Impunity, CFOM conducted a literature stocktake to scope out academic literature published in the area of media freedom, journalism safety and impunity. CFOM collated this information and produced a literature database organised by themes or countries for accessibility. The collection is especially strong on country- and region-specific safety issues and on surveys of emotional wellbeing of journalists. This special collection is curated by gemma.horton@sheffield.ac.uk.

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The culture of impunity: What journalists need to know about international humanitarian law

Roderic Alley

Pacific Journalism Review, volume 16, issue 1 (2010), pp. 78-95

"Whether they are nationals reporting wars occurring within their countries or international news media staff, journalists are facing growing dangers when covering conflict events. As civilians, they are protected to some extent by international humanitarian law (IHL). But what are these rules and h ... more

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The Media and International Humanitarian Law: Legal Protections for Journalists

Sophie Kagan, Helen Durham

Pacific Journalism Review, volume 16, issue 1 (2010), pp. 96-112

"Journalists and other media personnel perform a crucial role in armed conflicts. In the absence of functioning civil society, which, in peacetime can survey the behaviour of governments and other parties, and report on breaches of law, journalists are often the only parties on the ground able to do ... more

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Responsible Media: Learning to Survive the World's Difficult, Remote and Hostile Environments

Shaun Filer

Pacific Journalism Review, volume 16, issue 1 (2010), pp. 125-132

"What should be considered 'adequate' preparation and support for journalists and media workers in difficult, remote and hostile environments? One would assume there would be numerous sources of feedback and contributions measuring the suitability of the training, as well as providing information re ... more

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The effects of exposure to crisis on well-being of journalists: A study of crisis-related factors predicting psychological health in a sample of Finnish journalists

Klas Backholm, Kaj Björkqvist

Media, War & Conflict, volume 3, issue 2 (2010), pp. 138–151

"Effects of work-related and personal exposure to potentially traumatic events on PTSD (posttraumatic stress disorder), depression, compassion fatigue and burnout were examined in 503 Finnish news journalists (238 men, 265 women) by using a web-based survey. Stepwise linear multiple regression analy ... more

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The Moment is Frozen in Time: Photojournalists’ Metaphors in Describing Trauma Photography

Patrice Keats

Journal of Constructivist Psychology, volume 23, issue 3 (2010), pp. 231-255

"In describing their understanding of trauma, disaster, and conflict photography, photojournalists in this qualitative study conceptualized abstract experiences using specific types of metaphors. Their metaphors focused on concepts such as violence, bewilderment, and health/affliction. The unique as ... more

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Witnessing trauma in the newsroom: Posttraumatic symptoms in television journalists exposed to violent news clips

Anke Weidmann, Jenny Papsdorf

Journal of Nervous and Mental Disease, volume 198, issue 4 (2010), pp. 264-271

"Employees working in television newsrooms are exposed to video footage of violent events on a daily basis. It is yet unknown whether they subsequently develop symptoms of posttraumatic stress disorder as has been shown for other populations exposed to trauma through television. We conducted an inte ... more

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Murdering with impunity: The rise in terror tactics against news reporters

Frank Smyth

Harvard International Review, volume 32, issue 3 (2010), pp. 41-45

"More journalists were killed last year than ever before. No doubt the world has become a more dangerous place for journalists, but not necessarily in ways that people might expect. The risks to foreign journalists, especially for (but hardly limited to) Western correspondents, have risen dramatical ... more

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The psychological health of contractors working in war zones

Anthony Feinstein, Maggie Botes

Journal of Traumatic Stress, volume 22, issue 2 (2009), pp. 102-105

"This study examines the psychological health of contractors working in war zones. Seventy-nine contractors completed an Internet-based psychiatric assessment. The sample was exclusively male with a mean age of 43 (SD = 7) years. The number of contractors whose scores exceeded the cutoff points for ... more

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The Philippine President as Tortfeasor-in-Chief: Establishing Civil Liability for Constitutional Negligence

Florin Ternal Hilbay

Asian Journal of Comparative Law, volume 4 (2009), pp. 1-54

"This article analyzes the liability of the Philippine President for the tort of constitutional negligence in relation to the murders and forced disappearances of leftists, journalists, and other dissidents. It uses the international law doctrine of command responsibility as a form of attribution th ... more

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Staying alive in the killing fields

Nick Pollard

British Journalism Review, volume 20, issue 1 (2009), pp. 27-32

"Reporting on wars has always been a risky business for journalists. But news organisations have transformed their approach to safety in recent years by ensuring that all their staff sent to the front line have as much training as possible to minimise their chances of becoming victims of the conflic ... more

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Twenty-First Century Embedded Journalists: Lawful Targets?

W. Douglas Moore

Army Lawyer, issue July (2009), 32 pp.

"In light of the U.S. functionality test to Article 51(3), the role and use of today’s embedded journalist in international armed conflicts poses a direct threat to their civilian protections under Article 79 of Protocol I. Despite the fact that embedded journalism has helped to facilitate better ... more

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Don't shoot the messenger: Prospects for protecting journalists in conflict situations

M. Joanne Lisosky, Jennifer Henrichsen

Media, War & Conflict, volume 2, issue 2 (2009), pp. 129-148

"One of the greatest threats to freedom of expression around the world is the violence committed against journalists practicing their profession in conflict situations. During the last 20 years, an alarming number of journalists have been targeted or killed when reporting about war. This situation h ... more

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From Danger to Trauma Affective Labor and the Journalistic Discourse of Witnessing

Carrie Rentschler

In: Media Witnessing: Testimony in the Age of Mass Communication

Paul Frosh; Amit Pinchevski (eds.)

Palgrave (2009), pp. 158-181

"According to recent reports on violence committed against journalists, journalism is a dangerous, fear-inspiring job. In the wake of Daniel Pearl’s kidnapping and murder in January 2002 and the less-publicized but equally brutal killings of journalists in Bangladesh, the Philippines, the wars in ... more

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Addressing the Effects of Assignment Stress Injury

Marla Buchanan, Patrice Keats

Journalism Practice, volume 3, issue 2 (2009), pp. 162-177

"The purpose of this article is to present the results of a qualitative study on assignment stress injury within journalism. Thirty-one Canadian journalists and photojournalists participated in the research study. The focus of this article is on recommendations offered by our participants to address ... more

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Journalists: Shielded from the dangers of war in their pursuit of the truth?

Shannon Bosch

South African Yearbook of International Law, volume 34, issue 1 (2009), pp. 70-100

"This piece seeks to unpack these questions by exploring the current protection afforded journalists under both general international law and IHL (Part I); the IHL status of journalists (both those embedded in the military and those reporting as freelance / independent journalists) (Part II); target ... more

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Journalism in Central Asia: A Victim of Politics, Economics, and Widespread Self-censorship

Timothy Kenny, Peter Gross

International Journal of Press/Politics, volume 13, issue 4 (2008), pp. 515-525

"Significant efforts to develop an independent journalism have stumbled badly in Central Asia, where politics, economics and the unforeseen consequence of widespread self-censorship have derailed development of a Western-style media and the democracy it serves. What is worse, from Kazakhstan to Uzbe ... more

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Journalists, war crimes and international justice

Howard Tumber

Media, War & Conflict, volume 1, issue 3 (2008), pp. 261-269

"The examination of the ethical and moral issues surrounding the reporting of war crimes signals one of the outstanding problems facing journalism in the contemporary era. As the nature of war has changed, so has the nature of the journalism mandated to cover it, and the selection of war crimes tria ... more

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The protection of journalists in armed conflicts

Robin Geiss

German Yearbook of International Law, volume 51 (2008), pp. 289-320

"The first casualty of war is truth. Disinformation and tactical ruses of war have constituted essential components of warfare throughout history. Over time, influencing public opinion - and consequentially securing the prime position to exert such influence - has become ever more significant. In mo ... more

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The international protection of journalists in armed conflict and other violent situations

Ben Saul

Australian Journal of Human Rights, volume 14, issue 1 (2008), pp. 99-140

"Media reporting of armed conflict and other situations of heightened violence has become increasingly perilous, with large numbers of journalists and other media personnel killed or deliberately targeted because of their professional work, including by government forces and non-government actors. T ... more

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Journalists in War Zones: Crossing from the Newsroom into the Arena

C. A. Waschefort

De Jure, volume 40 (2007), pp. 379-384

"The very real danger in which conflict-journalists find themselves is well illustrated by the fact that during the recent conflict in Iraq proportionally more journalists were killed than members of the coalition forces (BalguyGallois March 2004 International Review of the Red Cross 37). The fact t ... more